Wayne G. Basler Library: ECED 2320 Infant, Toddler & Child Development: Class Topics: Articles & Books

Class Topics

The Trauma and Attachment-Aware Classroom: A Practical Guide to Supporting Children Who Have Encountered Trauma and Adverse Childhood Experiences by Rebecca Brooks
Publication Date: 2019
Trauma can have a significant impact on the stability of a child's development and can put additional pressures on the education staff working with them. Showing you how you can best support children who have experienced adverse childhood experiences, this guide is full of practical guidance on how you can adapt your teaching with this group. Covering a range of issues a child may have, such as foetal alcohol spectrum disorder, pathological demand avoidance, attachment difficulties and many more, this book provides the trauma-informed tools you need to care for these children and to give the best possible opportunities from their education. It also addresses the difference children may experience in learning, how they behave, how teachers can ensure home--school cooperation, and how teachers can act in a trauma-informed manner.

The association between adverse childhood experience (ACE) and school success in elementary school children
We explored the feasibility of using school personnel as reporters to examine the relationship between the level of adverse childhood experiences (ACEs) exposure in a nonclinical sample of public elementary schoolchildren and academic risk. We selected a random sample of 2,101 children from kindergarten through 6th grade classroom rosters at 10 elementary schools. Students were 50% male, 78% White, and 55% free and reduced meal program participants. School personnel reported their factual knowledge of 10 ACEs and academic risk in a database controlled by the schools. Data were de-identified prior to analysis. A high prevalence of ACEs exposure was reported (44%), with 13% of students experiencing 3 or more ACEs. Binary logistic regression analyses revealed a dose–response effect between the number of ACEs and risk of poor school attendance, behavioral issues, and failure to meet grade-level standards in mathematics, reading, or writing. Using elementary school personnel reports of child ACE exposure minimized family burden and potential intrusion while producing prevalence estimates consistent with those of caregiver report from the National Survey of Children’s Health. Results suggest that understanding and responding to a child’s ACE profile might be an important strategy for improving the academic trajectory of at-risk children. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2019 APA, all rights reserved)
Children With Adverse Childhood Experiences (Aces): Interventions For The Caregiver & Child (Streaming Video)
Many children receiving rehabilitation and special education services have experienced multiple Adverse Childhood Experiences (ACEs) that may not be recognized or addressed by service providers. In this session, you will learn: the biological/neurological effects of trauma; the effects of ACEs on children’s cognitive, language and social-emotional development; caregiver-child interventions to promote attunement and affect management; and child intervention strategies to promote resiliency and facilitate developmental skills for self-regulation. You will learn a framework that requires an integration of cognition/language and temperament/sensory/regulation factors. Interventions combine a mindfulness/mindsight approach for both caregivers and children.
Adverse childhood experience patterns, major depressive disorder, and substance use disorder in older adults
This article investigates distinct patterns of adverse childhood experiences (ACEs) in a representative sample of US older adults, and how the ACEs patterns relate to major depression and substance use disorder (SUD). Data came from the National Epidemiologic Survey on Alcohol and Related Conditions III. The study sample consisted of older adults aged 55 or older (N = 11,386). The dependent variable was past-year SUD measuring any DSM-5 diagnosis for alcohol, tobacco, cannabis, and other illicit drugs. The independent variables were the classes of ACEs identified using 11 types of early adversities. The mediating variable was past-year major depressive disorder. We conducted a latent class analysis (LCA) to identify latent classes of ACEs, estimated the relationships between the ACEs classes, major depressive disorder, and SUD, and tested mediation by major depression. Results of the LCA identified four classes of ACEs: High Adversity (6%), Low Adversity (69%), Child Abuse (16%), and Parental Substance Use (8%). The three classes of High Adversity, Child Abuse, and Parental Substance Use showed significantly higher rates of SUD than the Low Adversity class. The High Adversity and Child Abuse classes were more likely to have major depression compared to the Low Adversity class. In addition, major depression mediated the association between ACEs and SUD for those two classes. The findings provide evidence for a long-term impact of ACEs on mental health and SUD later in life and emphasize trauma-informed care principles in interventions for older adults with SUD
Intergenerational Associations between Parents’ and Children’s Adverse Childhood Experience Scores
Background: Adverse childhood experiences (ACEs) are stressful childhood events associated with behavioral, mental, and physical illness. Parent experiences of adversity may indicate a child’s adversity risk, but little evidence exists on intergenerational links between parents’ and children’s ACEs. This study examines these intergenerational ACE associations, as well as parent factors that mediate them. Methods: The Panel Study of Income Dynamics (PSID) 2013 Main Interview and the linked PSID Childhood Retrospective Circumstances Study collected parent and child ACE information. Parent scores on the Aggravation in Parenting Scale, Parent Disagreement Scale, and the Kessler-6 Scale of Emotional Distress were linked through the PSID 1997, 2002, and 2014 PSID Childhood Development Supplements. Multivariate linear and multinomial logistic regression models estimated adjusted associations between parent and child ACE scores. Results: Among 2205 parent-child dyads, children of parents with four or more ACEs had 3.25-fold (23.1% [95% CI 15.9–30.4] versus 7.1% [4.4–9.8], p-value 0.001) higher risk of experiencing four or more ACEs themselves, compared to children of parents without ACEs. Parent aggravation, disagreement, and emotional distress were partial mediators. Conclusions: Parents with higher ACE scores are far more likely to have children with higher ACEs. Addressing parenting stress, aggravation, and discord may interrupt intergenerational adversity cycles.
Relationships among adverse childhood experience patterns, psychological resilience, self-esteem and depressive symptoms in Chinese adolescents: A serial multiple mediation model
Highlights
• Expanding the original definition of adverse childhood experiences (ACEs) based on the special social context of China
• Identifying ACE patterns with a latent class analysis given the limitations of cumulative and single adversity approaches
• Self-esteem is protective against future depressive symptoms in early adolescents with moderate, but not high levels of ACEs
Translating cultural assets research into action to mitigate adverse childhood experience–related health disparities among African American youth
Adverse childhood experiences (ACEs) including trauma exposure, parent mental health problems, family dysfunction, and community-level adversities put individuals at risk for a host of negative health outcomes. The effects of cumulative ACEs are numerous, diverse, and can predispose an individual to cognitive, emotional, behavioral, and physical health problems as well as premature death. African American youth experience disproportionate exposure to ACEs in the context of racism that increases risk for allostatic load and hinders systems of care responses resulting in physical and mental health disparities. To maximize efforts to mitigate these disparities it is imperative that we translate research into action to respond to ACEs in the context of racism. This article synthesizes African American cultural assets research within a resilience after trauma framework to provide a foundation for translating research into action to mitigate ACE-related disparities among African American youth. We present task shifting and youth-partnered advocacy as two strategies supported by this framework and describe their application to responding to ACEs in the context of racism.
Adverse Childhood Experience (ACE) Prevalence and Severity of Mental, Behavioral, and Developmental Disorders: National Survey of Child Health (NSCH) 2011-2016
INTRODUCTION: The lifelong health consequences of early adverse childhood experiences have profound implications to mental, behavioral and developmental disabilities and health across the lifespan.
PURPOSE: The present study sought to determine the prevalence of Adverse Childhood Experience (ACE), the prevalence of mental behavioral and developmental disorders (MBDD), and Diagnosis Complexity (DxC) as reported by the National Survey of Children's Health (NSCH) in the 2011 and 2016. Symptom complexity can be viewed as a measure of health outcomes in pediatric populations.
METHODS: We used a correlative and independent t-test analysis to examine the relationships between Adverse Childhood Experience scores (ACE) and the prevalence of mental behavioral and developmental disorders (MBDD) for the two data sets (NSCH 2011 and NSCH 2016). The differences between the 2011 (N = 94,372) and the 2016 (N = 46,635) data collection was reconciled in order to make an accurate comparison of diagnoses and to reflect a change in data collection methods (from phone survey to online questionnaires).
RESULTS: Over the span of five years, there was a decrease in the prevalence of adverse childhood experiences (ACE scores) in the population measured. However, during this same time span, the prevalence of MBDD not only increased but the number of children having more than one diagnosis increased, suggesting an increase in symptom severity in the pediatric population. As adverse childhood experiences increase, there is a significant correlate increase in symptom severity (2011, M = .45; 2016, M = .47, p < 0.001).
DISCUSSION: This is the first study to show the relationship of ACE to symptom severity in the pediatric population. This finding is critical for occupational therapy practitioners working in pediatric settings and emphasizes the importance of how underlying contextual factors impact health outcomes. Importantly, the change in decreased ACE scores may be attributed to the change in the data collection method for the survey (i.e. exclusively online).
Youth exposure to violence involving a gun: evidence for adverse childhood experience classification
Adverse childhood experiences (ACEs) have historically included child maltreatment, household dysfunction, and other critical issues known to impact children negatively. Although youth experiences with violence are broadly captured in some ACE measures, youth exposure to violence involving a gun has not been included specifically in the operationalizing, and therefore scientific study, of ACEs. There are numerous implications of this omission, including limiting access to ACE interventions that are currently available and resources for individuals who have been exposed to gun violence. Thus, and given the persistent prevalence of gun violence in the US, we conducted a systematic review of the literature over the past two decades on the assessment of and response to ACEs and gun violence. Eighty-one journal articles across four search engines met our inclusion criteria. Our findings provide evidence that youth gun violence exposure should be classified as an ACE. In addition to increasing access to resources for youth affected by gun violence, these findings may improve the likelihood of funding and research into gun violence, with direct implications for prevention and intervention efforts.
The Role of Adverse Childhood Experience on Depression Symptom, Prevalence, and Severity among School Going Adolescents
Background and Objectives. Adverse childhood experiences include stressful and potentially traumatic events associated with a higher risk of long-term behavioral problems and chronic illnesses. In this study, we had estimated the prevalence of adverse childhood experiences (ACEs) and association with depression symptoms prevalence and severity as a function of ACE counts. Methods. A cross-sectional school-based study was employed. Five hundred forty-six secondary school students were selected using multistage sampling technique from 5 selected secondary schools. We obtained retrospective information on adverse childhood experiences of adolescents by ACEs, self-reported 10-item questionnaire, and current depression prevalence and severity by PHQ-9. Multivariate linear regression models were used to estimate child depression severity by retrospective ACE count. Results. Among the 546 adolescents who participated in this study, 285 (50.7%) of the participants answered yes to at least one or more questions among the total 10 questions of ACEs. Experiences of ACEs increased the risk for depressive symptoms, with unstandardized [beta] = 1.123 [beta] =1.123, 95% CI (0.872, 1.373). We found a strong, dose-response relationship between the ACE score and the probability of lifetime and recent depressive disorders (p < 0.0001). Conclusions. The number of ACEs has a graded relationship to both the prevalence and severity of depressive symptoms. These results suggest that exposure to ACEs is associated with an increased risk of depressive symptoms up to decades after their occurrence. Early recognition of childhood abuse and appropriate intervention may thus play an important role in the prevention of depressive disorders throughout the life span.
Cumulative Exposure to Adverse Childhood Experience: Depressive Symptoms, Suicide Intensions and Suicide Plans among Senior High School Students in Nanchang City of China
This study tested relationships between different types of adverse childhood experiences (ACE) and depressive symptoms, suicide intensions, suicide plans and examines the cumulative effects of adverse childhood experience on depressive, suicide intentions and suicide plans among senior high school students. We conducted a survey among five senior high schools in Nanchang city, which were selected through stratified random cluster sampling. Among the 884 respondents, 409 were male (46.27%), and 475 were female (53.73%); the age ranged from 14 to 18. During the past 12 months, 199 (22.51%) students presented to depressive symptoms, 125 (14.14%) students had suicide intensions, 55 (6.22%) students had suicide plans. As ACE scores increased, there was an increase in the odds of (1) depressive symptoms—one ACE (adjusted odds ratio, AOR = 2.096, p < 0.001), two ACEs (AOR = 3.155, p < 0.001) and three to five ACEs (AOR = 9.707, p < 0.001); suicide intensions-1 ACE (AOR = 1.831, p = 0.011), two ACEs (AOR = 2.632, p = 0.002) and three to five ACEs (AOR = 10.836, p < 0.001); and (2) suicide plans—one ACE (AOR = 2.599, p < 0.001), two ACEs (AOR = 4.748, p < 0.001) and three to five ACEs (AOR = 22.660, p < 0.001). We should increase the awareness of adolescents who have had adverse childhood experience, especially those with multiple ACEs to prevent depression and suicide among senior high school students.
Children Exposed to Domestic Violence: Using Adverse Childhood Experience Scores to Inform Service Response
The identification of those children with high probability of experiencing poor health and social outcomes over the life course is a policy and service priority. In this paper, findings from a student population survey (n = 765) to determine the prevalence of Adverse Childhood Experiences (ACE) is reported. It was found that, for those students reporting ACE scores of 1 or more, experience of domestic violence was the best predictor for higher ACE scores, with 86.0 per cent reporting a score of 4+: a pattern holding true for those students reporting female directed domestic violence and those reporting male-directed violence. Students reporting ACE scores of 4+ were twenty-three times more likely to have had contact with social workers than those with scores of 0. These findings indicate the need for service providers to further assess cases referred for reasons of domestic violence, screening for co-occurring of ACE to help inform service prioritisation. It is further argued that the development of research into factors predictive of poor long-term outcomes further advances the incremental task of creating an evidence base to both inform and transform prioritisation of services to those children and families referred to social work agencies.
Adverse childhood experience and asthma onset: a systematic review
Adverse childhood experiences such as abuse and neglect are associated with subsequent immune dysregulation. Some studies show an association between adverse childhood experiences and asthma onset, although significant disparity in results exists in the published literature.
We aimed to review available studies employing a prospective design that investigates associations between adverse childhood experience and asthma. A search protocol was developed and studies were drawn from four electronic journal databases. Studies were selected in accordance with pre-set inclusion criteria and relevant data were extracted.
12 studies, assessing data from a total of 31 524 individuals, were identified that investigate the impact of a range of adverse childhood experiences on the likelihood of developing asthma. Evidence suggests that chronic stress exposure and maternal distress in pregnancy operate synergistically with known triggers such as traffic-related air pollution to increase asthma risk.
Chronic stress in early life is associated with an increased risk of asthma onset. There is evidence that adverse childhood experience increases the impact of traffic-related air pollution and inconsistent evidence that adverse childhood experience has an independent effect on asthma onset.
Parents' Adverse Childhood Experiences and Their Children's Behavioral Health Problems (Streaming Video)
Data from a national survey of families shows parents with a history of many ACEs are more likely to have children with behavioral health problems.
When Problems Only Get Bigger: The Impact of Adverse Childhood Experience on Adult Health
Introduction: Previous studies have shown that adverse childhood experiences negatively impact child development, with consequences throughout the lifespan. Some of these consequences include the exacerbation or onset of several pathologies and risk behaviors.
Materials and Methods: A convenience sample of 398 individuals aged 20 years or older from the Porto metropolitan area, with quotas, was collected. The evaluation was conducted using an anonymous questionnaire that included sociodemographic questions about exposure to adverse childhood experiences, a list of current health conditions, questions about risk behaviors, the AUDIT-C test, the Fagerström test and the Childhood Trauma Questionnaire–brief form. Variables were quantified to measure adverse childhood experiences, pathologies, and risk behaviors in adult individuals for comparison purposes.
Results: Individuals with different forms of adverse childhood experiences present higher rates of smoking dependence, self-harm behaviors, victimization of/aggression toward intimate partners, early onset of sexual life, sexually transmitted infections, multiple sexual partners, abortions, anxiety, depression, diabetes, arthritis, high cholesterol, hypertension, and stroke. Different associations are analyzed and presented.
Discussion and Conclusions: The results show that individuals with adverse childhood experiences have higher total scores for more risk behaviors and health conditions than individuals without traumatic backgrounds. These results are relevant for health purposes and indicate the need for further research to promote preventive and protective measures.
Poverty as an Adverse Childhood Experience
Research demonstrates the correlation between childhood adversities linked to poverty and negative outcomes in adulthood, indicating that poverty may itself be considered an adverse childhood experience. Because child poverty is a result of family economic circumstance, policy investments promoting family financial health are imperative to protect child well-being and North Carolina's future prosperity.
The needs of looked after children from an adverse childhood experience perspective
There has been considerable interest in the association of Adverse Childhood Experiences (ACEs) and health and social care outcomes in adulthood. One way of thinking about the needs of looked after children is through an Adverse Childhood Experiences lens as looked after children have commonly been exposed to very high rates of ACEs. This paper makes the case that the association between exposure to ACEs and poor adult outcomes in the general population is heightened in looked after children and care leavers who have the same outcomes as the general population, but more often and at an earlier age.
Screening for Adverse Childhood Experiences: Literature Review and Practice Implications
Highlights
• Patients find adverse childhood experience (ACE) questionnaires an acceptable part of care and are willing to review with their clinician.
• Patients and clinicians report discussing ACE screens improves the patient-clinician relationship.
• ACE screenings are feasible to incorporate into a variety of health care settings, including outpatient visits and home visits.
• The successful implementation of ACE screenings includes education and training for clinicians and support staff.
• The availability of local resources should be assessed and a referral system in place before implementing ACE screenings.
Adverse childhood experience and substance use disorder: Exploring connections and trauma informed care
Adverse childhood experiences (ACEs) include abuse, neglect, and household dysfunction experienced between the ages of 0 and 17 years. These quantifiable experiences can be expressed as an ACE score of 1 to 10. Between 1995 and 1997, the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) conducted a study examining the prevalence and effects of the 10 categories of ACEs, and found that ACEs are common yet commonly go unrecognized, and can lead to myriad health and social impacts later in life1. Among the most significant of these impacts is a 4- to 12-fold increase in risk for depression, suicide, and substance abuse1. Data has shown that trauma increases risk for addiction and substance use disorder (SUD), sometimes as a means of comfort or self-treatment2. Considering a trauma-informed care approach for those with SUD and other addiction disorders, particularly those with a history of ACEs, could change the treatment landscape and promote recovery.
Adverse Childhood Experiences, Domestic Violence and Substance Misuse: An Action Research Study on Routine Enquiry and Practice Responses
The long-term impacts of Adverse Childhood Experiences (ACEs) are of increasing interest to researchers and practitioners, including the effectiveness of screening for ACEs to improve health and social outcomes. Despite a focus on implementing such practices, there has been little focus on ACEs experiences for women experiencing domestic violence and substance use, or consideration of practice responses around ACEs routine enquiry for domestic violence and related services. The Irish study discussed in this paper used an action research approach to implement ACEs routine enquiry within a domestic violence service for women accessing the service (n = 60), while also utilizing co-operative inquiry groups for practitioners both within the organization (n = 10) and with those working in associated fields of infant mental health, child protection, substance misuse and welfare and community support (n = 7). Of the 60 women who completed the ACEs routine enquiry in the study, over one-half (58 per cent) reported experiencing at least two ACEs in their childhood, including one-third of all respondents reporting experiencing four or more; service users reported significant levels of overlap between direct child maltreatment and adverse home environments. Reported parental substance misuse with the home environment was substantially higher than in general population studies. These findings offered early indications of both ACEs prevalence as well the types of ACEs that most define the experiences of the women presenting to a domestic violence service that supports women with substance misuse and other related issues. This paper discusses the ways in which the co-operative inquiry groups used this information and other processes to enhance practitioner, organizational, and inter-agency understanding and service responses. The practitioners felt that this form of ACEs routine enquiry, while not an end in itself, was a useful tool to engage women in conversations about trauma and intergenerational patterns and a basis for developing trauma-informed interventions. We conclude with discussion about: considerations of the risks of “individualizing” women's traumatic experiences; skills and supports for practitioners; and resource implications.
Adverse experiences in early childhood and their longitudinal impact on later behavioral problems of children living in poverty
Background:
Adverse childhood experiences (ACEs) are an identified risk factor for the social and emotional development of children. What is less known is the long-term effects of ACEs when poverty and ACEs coincide.
Objective:
Using longitudinal cohort-panel data, we examined whether exposure to ACEs by the age of three among poor children would longitudinally result in behavioral problems at ages three, five, nine, and 15, after controlling for mothers’ socioeconomic status and their children’s characteristics.
Participants and setting:
We used a subsample of 2750 children and their parents living in urban poverty from the Fragile Families and Child Wellbeing study.
Methods
Logistic regression modeling was used to obtain adjusted odds ratios of ACE categories predicting behavioral problems after accounting for family socioeconomic position.
Results
Our findings indicate that experiencing ACEs in early childhood was significantly associated with later behavioral outcomes from childhood to adolescence. Exposure to multiple ACEs before the age of three was significantly associated with the top-risk behavior group at age five; the odd ratios were 2.0 (CI = 1.3–3.1) and 2.9 (CI = 1.8–4.6) for two ACEs and three or more ACEs, respectively. At both ages nine and 15, children experiencing two or more ACEs had 1.9 to 3.2 times higher odds to demonstrate more the top 10th percentile of behavioral problems. Among covariates, mothers’ race and education, and children’s gender and temperament were identified as significant factors to determine behavior problems.
Conclusions
The findings support policies and programs for families with children who have experienced economic disadvantages and early childhood adversity.
Adverse Experiences in Early Childhood and Kindergarten Outcomes
OBJECTIVE: To examine associations between adverse childhood experiences (ACEs) in early childhood and teacher-reported academic and behavioral problems in kindergarten.
METHODS: We conducted a secondary analysis of data from the Fragile Families and Child Wellbeing Study, a national urban birth cohort. Subjects with primary caregiver-reported information on ACE exposures ascertained at 5 years and teacher-reported outcomes at the end of the child’s kindergarten year were included. Outcomes included teacher ratings of academic skills, emergent literacy skills, and behavior. We included 8 ACE exposures on the basis of the original Centers for Disease Control and Prevention Kaiser study and created an ACE score by summing individual adversities. We examined the associations between teacher-reported academic and behavioral outcomes and ACE scores by using logistic regression.
RESULTS: In the study sample, 1007 children were included. Fifty-five percent had experienced 1 ACE and 12% had experienced ≥ 3. Adjusting for potential confounders, experiencing ≥ 3 ACEs was associated with below-average language and literacy skills (adjusted odds ratio [AORs]: 1.8; 95% confidence interval [CI]: 1.1–2.9) and math skills (AOR: 1.8, 95% CI: 1.1–2.9), poor emergent literacy skills, attention problems (AOR: 3.5, 95% CI: 1.8–6.5), social problems (AOR: 2.7, 95% CI: 1.4–5.0), and aggression (AOR: 2.3, 95% CI: 1.2–4.6).
CONCLUSIONS: In this study of urban children, experiencing ACEs in early childhood was associated with below-average, teacher-reported academic and literacy skills and behavior problems in kindergarten. These findings underscore the importance of integrated approaches that promote optimal development among vulnerable children.

Baby's Brain Begin's Now
Brain Plasticity and Behaviour in the Developing Brain
Objective: To review general principles of brain development, identify basic principles of brain plasticity, and discuss factors that influence brain development and plasticity.
Method: A literature review of relevant English-language manuscripts on brain development and plasticity was conducted.
Results: Brain development progresses through a series of stages beginning with neurogenesis and progressing to neural migration, maturation, synaptogenesis, pruning, and myelin formation. Eight basic principles of brain plasticity are identified. Evidence that brain development and function is influenced by different environmental events such as sensory stimuli, psychoactive drugs, gonadal hormones, parental-child relationships, peer relationships, early stress, intestinal flora, and diet.
Conclusions: The development of the brain reflects more than the simple unfolding of a genetic blueprint but rather reflects a complex dance of genetic and experiential factors that shape the emerging brain. Understanding the dance provides insight into both normal and abnormal development.
InBrief: The Impact of Early Adversity on Children’s Development
What happens in early childhood can matter for a lifetime. To successfully manage our society’s future, we must recognize problems and address them before they get worse. In early childhood, research on the biology of stress shows how major adversity, such as extreme poverty, abuse, or neglect can weaken developing brain architecture and permanently set the body’s stress response system on high alert. Science also shows that providing stable, responsive, nurturing relationships in the earliest years of life can prevent or even reverse the damaging effects of early life stress, with lifelong benefits for learning, behavior, and health.
Active Bodies/Active Brains: The Relationship Between Physical Engagement and Children's Brain Development
Educators often struggle daily with the issue of how to engage students for learning. Many instructional strategies are devoted to the concept of engagement to keep students interested and on task to enhance learning, but defining the term is difficult. Engagement may involve a combination of terms that relates to the effort of students when they devote themselves to purposeful activities (Krause & Coates, 2008). Advocates of physical engagement have known for years that movement enhances learning, but what has been missing is the research to support this belief. An increase in brain research now provides a definitive link connecting movement with the enhancement of learning. The purpose of this paper was to examine the relationship between physical engagement and the development of the mind-body connection, how physical engagement enhances that development, and the current research in the field that supports the construct.
Infant Neurosensory Development: Considerations for Infant Child Care
Infant brain development is a dynamic process dependent upon endogenous and exogenous stimulation and a supportive environment. A critical period of brain and neurosensory development occurs during the third trimester and into the 'fourth' trimester (first three months of life). Disruption, damage, or deprivation in the infant's social and physical environment can create permanent deficits in the developing neurosensory systems. Implications for infant child care environments are discussed, and a review of quality and standards in infant child care environments leads to a call for improvements to optimize child development.
The Correlation Between Brain Development, Language Acquisition, and Cognition
There continues to be a debate whether educators should use brain research to their advantage in the classroom. This debate should not prevent educators from using their new found knowledge toward enhancing their students’ learning. By understanding how the brain learns, educators are able to determine what developmental level the child is physically, mentally, socially, and cognitively. The more knowledge an educator has and applies, the better the children will learn, and our future leaders will be better educated.
Studying early brain development: Educators' reports about their learning and its applications to early childhood policies and practices
THE UNIVERSITY OF SOUTH Australia's online course 'Brain development in the Early Years' is a response to Mustard's Thinker in Residence Report (2008) which recommended the early childhood educator workforce acquire knowledge about young children's brain development. This research investigated educators' views on the value for their work of learning about early brain development. Data comprised responses to course content in online course discussions and a standard anonymous online course evaluation instrument, written by 45 in-service and pre-service educators enrolled in the course. Analysis revealed four themes regarding educators' statements about the value of brain development knowledge for their roles as educators: 'Working with families', 'Working with children', 'Advocacy' and 'Working across services'. Themes are described and illustrated with examples from students' writing. Findings are discussed in terms of the impact of educators' knowledge about brain development on their thinking about their professional practice.
Brain development: Memory enhancement in early childhood
Control networks and neuromodulators of early development.
In adults, most cognitive and emotional self-regulation is carried out by a network of brain regions, including the anterior cingulate, insula, and areas of the basal ganglia, related to executive attention. We propose that during infancy, control systems depend primarily upon a brain network involved in orienting to sensory events that includes areas of the parietal lobe and frontal eye fields. Studies of human adults and alert monkeys have shown that the brain network involved in orienting to sensory events is moderated primarily by the nicotinic cholinergic system arising in the nucleus basalis. The executive attention network is primarily moderated by dopaminergic input from the ventral tegmental area. A change from cholinergic to dopaminergic modulation would be a consequence of this switch of control networks and may be important in understanding early development. We trace the attentional, emotional, and behavioral changes in early development related to this developmental change in regulative networks and their modulators.
The ontogeny of human memory: A cognitive neuroscience perspective.
The relation between early memory development and corresponding changes in brain development is explored in this article. It is proposed that a form of preexplicit memory (dependent on the hippocampus) develops in the 1st few months. Between 8 and 12 mo, a more adultlike form of explicit memory emerges, which draws broadly on limbic and cortical structures. Two types of implicit memory also make their appearance in the 1st few months: procedural learning (dependent on striatal structures) and conditioning ( which may rely on the olivary-cerebellar complex and possibly the hippocampus). Finally, working memory (dependent on the prefrontal cortex and associated neural circuitry) is also present early in life, although the ability to use working memory when motoric ability is also required (e.g., reaching for hidden objects) has a protracted developmental course relative to other forms of memory
Spatial Working Memory Deficits in Children at Ages 3-4 Who Were Low Birth Weight, Preterm Infants
The aim of this study was to investigate attention and perceptual and spatial working memory abilities in preterm, low birth weight preschool children without evident brain disorders as determined by normal cerebral ultrasound findings and normal motor development. The authors evaluated 19 preterm and 19 typically developing children who were matched for IQ and chronological age. Results indicated that children born prematurely without major neurological deficits and with a normal cognitive level may have specific difficulty in sustained attention, visuospatial processing, and spatial working memory when evaluated at ages 3-4. This finding is relevant for understanding the qualitative aspects of cognitive development in preterm children and the neurobiological substrate underlying this development.
Neurobiology and Neurodevelopmental Impact of Childhood Traumatic Stress and Prenatal Alcohol Exposure.
Purpose: Research reveals that prenatal alcohol exposure and child trauma (i.e., abuse, neglect, sexual abuse) can have deleterious effects on child development across multiple domains. This study analyzed the impact on childhood neurodevelopment of prenatal alcohol exposure and postnatal traumatic experience compared to postnatal traumatic experience alones. Although the harmful effects of both have been well documented individually, there is no research documenting the concurrent effects of prenatal alcohol exposure and postnatal traumatic experience compared to postnatal traumatic experience alones. Although the harmful effects of both have been well documented individually, there is no research documenting the concurrent effects of prenatal alcohol exposure and postnatal trauma on a child's developmental process. Method: Transdisciplinary assessment of the children included the core disciplines of medicine, speech-lauguage pathology occupational therapy, social work, and psychology. Medical examination, standardized developmental and intelligence testing, projective tools, parent questionnaries, and psychosocial interviews provided information in the primary developmental areas Results: Findings indicated that children who had been exposed prenatally to alcohol along with postnatal traumatic experience had lower intelligence scores and more severe neurodevelopmental deficits in languagte, memory, visual processing, motor skills, and attention than dis traumatized children without prenat alcohol exposure, as well as greater oppositional/defiant behavior, inattention, hyperactivity, impulsivity, and social problems. Clinical Implications: Successful teacher and speech language pathologist interventions with traumatized children with prenatal alcohol exposure demand a paradigm shift that requires the development of new perspectives and ongoing training.
The Role of Nutrition in Brain Development: The Golden Opportunity of the “First 1000 Days”
Socioeconomic status and the developing brain – A systematic review of neuroimaging findings in youth
Highlights
• This review aimed to synthesize findings on the neural correlates of socioeconomic status (SES) in youth samples across neuroimaging modalities.
• Relatively consistent patterns of associations between SES and cortical surface area of some frontal regions and amygdala, hippocampal, and striatal volume (with most consistent results for composite SES indices).
• Longitudinal results suggest low-SES-associated attenuated developmental trajectories.
• Low SES was also found to be associated with alterations in the white matter organization of some tracts.
Small Talk: A Community Research Collaboration to Increase Parental Provision of Language to Children
Background: Early language input contributes to children's healthy brain development and sets the stage for life-long achievement and wellness. Parents vary in their ability to offer rich language support within the home environment due to social and contextual factors. There is a lack of research on the effectiveness of a universal prevention approach to equip all parents to provide an enriching home language environment. Objective: A team including university researchers, a public library, and a community non-profit agency worked together to test the effectiveness of a universal, community-based intervention to increase parents' child-directed speech, back-and-forth interactions with their child, and knowledge of child development. Method: Over a period of 2 years, three cohorts of parents and caregivers completed the program (n = 153). Using translational research principles, a pre/post longitudinal repeated measures data analytic strategy examined the growth in parent talk (total number of adult words and conversational turns directed to the child) and parent knowledge of child development. This objective quantitative language data was collected automatically, with innovative wearable technology that was a part of the intervention and data collection. Results: In each of the cycles of the intervention, a significant increase in the amount of child-directed speech and in the number of conversational turns between the caregiver and child was demonstrated. In addition, parents significantly increased their knowledge of child development. Conclusion: Universal programs delivered in the community have potential to help parents provide the type of enriching language environments that lead to optimal brain development for young children.
Sleep and Early Brain Development
The early years of life are characterized by dramatic developmental changes. Within this important time period lies the transition from newborn to childhood. Sleep is one of the primary activities of the brain during early development and plays an important role in healthy cognitive and psychosocial development in early life. This paper will first review the normal sleep characteristics and their development in neonates and children, including architecture of sleep, development of a healthy sleep rhythm in early childhood, sleep recommendations and cultural disparity, as well as important factors for establishing a healthy sleep pattern during the first years of life, such as regular and consistent bedtime routine, safe and comfortable sleep environment, and appropriate sleep onset associations. This paper then provides recent updates of evidence of the effects of sleep on early brain development, particularly on learning and memory, emotional regulation, and general cognitive development through behavioral and neurophysiological studies. As regards the mechanism, many experimental sleep deprivation studies in animals and adults have attempted to explain the underlying mechanisms of sleep on cognition and the emotional brain. Future studies are expected to delineate the effects of sleep on brain structural and functional networks in the developing brain with the marked development of image acquisition approaches and the novel analysis tools for infants and young children in recent years.

Perceptions of counselors regarding the effectiveness of interventions for traumatized children.
Limited research exists to guide counselors of traumatized children as they search for effective interventions. The authors conducted a multicase study to examine counselors' perceptions in regard to the effectiveness of interventions for children who have experienced trauma. Six counselors who work with traumatized children were contacted and interviewed. Two participants were registered play therapists, and the remaining counselors specialized in working with traumatized children in a variety of clinical settings; however, all 6 participants used therapeutic play skills when counseling traumatized children. Four significant themes emerged from the data analysis and are presented along with implications for counselors.
Intensive Holistic Treatment for Traumatized Children.
The article discusses the use of an intensive holistic treatment for traumatized children. Topics covered include the Neurological Reparative Therapy, the importance of effective behavior management when working with the most violent children, and the consistency of placement. Also mentioned are learning to build attachments, developing self-regulation, and developing coping and resiliency skills.
Somatic Symptoms in Traumatized Children and Adolescents.
Childhood exposure to trauma has been associated with increased rates of somatic symptoms (SS), which may contribute to diminished daily functioning. One hundred and sixty-one children residing at a residential treatment home who had experienced neglect and/or abuse were administered the Trauma Symptom Checklist for Children (TSCC), the Multidimensional Anxiety Scale for Children, and the Children's Depression Inventory (CDI). Primary caregivers completed the Child Behavior Checklist. Two composite measures of SS were formed to represent both child- and caregiver-rated SS. Over 95% of children endorsed at least one SS on the child-rated measure. Children who had experienced sexual abuse had higher rates of SS relative to children who had not. Child-rated SS were highly correlated with the CDI total score and the TSCC subscales of anxiety, depression, posttraumatic stress, dissociation, and anger. The TSCC anxiety subscale mediated the relationship between sexual abuse and child-rated SS.
Childhood Trauma and Play Therapy Intervention for Traumatized Children
Play therapy is examined as an intervention for traumatized children. Difficulties in assessing Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) in children according to the existing criteria are described, and the aspects of play therapy that facilitate the curative potential in children are analyzed. Release Play Therapy and Child-Centered Play Therapy are discussed as possible approaches in the treatment of traumatized children.
Healing Trauma through Art.
The article examines the use of art in both assessment and therapy of traumatized children. Topics discussed include art providing youth with a medium to express images of self as well as children portraying the depth of their terror and loss through drawing, thus externalizing the implicit messages and deeper meanings of traumatic experiences. Also mentioned is the National Institute of Trauma and Loss in Children (TLC) pioneering strength-based, resilience-focused intervention.

Supporting Traumatized Children and Teenagers: A Guide to Providing Understanding and Help by Atle Dyregrov
Publication Date: 2010
Supporting Traumatized Children and Teenagers is an accessible, comprehensive book providing an overview of the impact of trauma on children and adolescents and how they can be supported following trauma. Trauma can result from a range of experiences from bullying to witnessing violence to living through war. This book explores the different reactions children may experience, and the impact trauma can have. Variables affecting the impact of trauma are explored such as different developmental stages, gender, the reactions of friends and parents, the child's personality, and their caring environment. Appropriate and effective ways of helping children after a traumatic event are outlined, and different types of therapy, such as group therapy and cognitive behavioural therapy, are discussed. The book offers case examples and practical tips throughout, and includes a chapter on how someone working with a traumatized child can help and look after themselves. This book will be invaluable to a range of professionals working with traumatized children including counsellors, child and family social workers and therapists, as well as others involved with traumatized children such as foster carers and teachers.
A Child's Journey to Recovery: Assessment and Planning with Traumatized Children by Patrick Tomlinson; Terry Philpot
Publication Date: 2008
This book shows how carefully planned and assessed treatment can help traumatized children. It outlines how to set up a process for measuring a child's progress towards recovery. Uniquely, the book describes a practical outcomes-based approach that can be provided by an integrated multi-disciplinary team. Particular themes addressed include the conflict between the child's chronological and emotional ages, the need to work at the child's pace, the importance of the whole-team approach, and the challenges involved in measuring progress. The authors describe clearly defined outcomes for recovery, how children are assessed and how recovery plans are made, and show how progress can be closely monitored and responded to through the continuing process of assessment. An in-depth case study is used to show how this works in practice. This book forms part of an integrated approach and is an ideal accompaniment to existing titles in the SACCS `Delivering Recovery' series.
Raising Our Children to Be Resilient: A Guide to Helping Children Cope with Trauma in Today's World by Linda Goldman
Publication Date: 2005
In this timely and much-needed book, Linda Goldman addresses the many frightening events that impact our children by providing the reader with a seamless mixture of theory and practice garnered from her extensive experience in the field. Raising Our Children to Be Resilientincludes trauma resolution techniques and case studies, discussions of the respective roles played by parents, teachers and the larger community as well as additional resources for those in a position to help children who have been traumatized. The goal of Raising Our Children to Be Resilientis exactly what its title promises: to help children through their pain and confusion and guide them into a flexible and compassionate adulthood.
Revealing the Inner World of Traumatized Children: An Attachment-Informed Model for Assessing Emotional Needs and Treatment by Christine Bradley
Publication Date: 2017
Bringing together the latest research and theory about a child's inner world and the impact of the world around them, this is a guide to understanding and responding to the emotional needs of traumatised children. Founded on the principle that traumatised children do not have a secure sense of self and therefore cannot relate to the outside world without becoming overwhelmed, this book brings psychoanalytic and psychodynamic understandings of child psychology together with current neuroscience and trauma theory. At the heart of the book is an attachment-informed assessment model and guidance for treatment. Professionals working therapeutically with traumatised children, including therapists, psychologists, psychiatrists, mental health workers, social workers and residential care workers, will benefit from the wealth of knowledge and valuable practice guidance presented in this book.

Synergistic adversities and behavioral problems in traumatized children and adolescents
Objective
This study investigated synergy of commonly co-occurring pairs of childhood traumas/adversities to determine: 1) if synergistic pairings differ by gender and/or age grouping; and 2) if some traumas/adversities were more synergistically reactive.
Conclusion
Sexual abuse was malignantly synergistic, frequently pairing with other adversities, followed by physical abuse, neglect, and domestic violence. The findings underscore that all ACEs are not equal in their contributions to commonly assessed outcomes. The findings also have considerable implications for prevention, intervention, and future research.
How the challenging behaviour of a traumatised child tells their trauma story and is a vital part of their
Like the character in Coleridge's 'Rhyme of the Ancient Mariner' who is driven to stop as many people as he can to tell and re-tell his traumatic story, children too are telling us about the traumas they have suffered in order to recover from them. But, unlike Coleridge's wounded mariner who narrates his trauma, children use their behaviour to tell us their trauma story.

Childhood Trauma and Resilience: A Practical Guide by Heather C. Forkey; Jessica L. Griffin; Moira Szilagyi
Publication Date: 2021
Trauma-informed care is emerging as a critical component of pediatric best practices. With this new practical guide, pediatricians and other child health professionals will learn to identify, evaluate, and treat children and families affected by trauma and adversity when they present at the office. In addition to instruction for acute, hands-on care, the cohesive approach offered in this guide also lays out a framework and concrete steps to transform practices into ones that are trauma-sensitive and can provide the best, most impactful care to all patients. Childhood Trauma and Resilience: A Practical Guide includes mnemonics, charts, tables, and numerous case studies to reinforce learning, as well as timely information on physician burnout and secondary traumatic stress. More than 20 reproducible handouts on topics such as attachment, cultural connections, and promoting resilience, will help pediatricians engage with parents on these important related topics and focus on the family factors that can help prevent and mitigate the effects of trauma.

Supporting children's resilience: Early childhood educator understandings.
THIS PAPER HAS TWO AIMS. First, it examines how children's resilience is being defined and discussed in literature, and second, it presents findings from a small-scale study that investigated early childhood educator understandings of children's resilience across the curriculum. Considering resilience as a multifaceted construct, the authors question why children's resilience should be a focus for educator practice and how research literature is portraying the role of educators in supporting children to become resilient. The findings illustrate that educators in the study had varied understandings of the notion of resilience and how to support children's resilience. Spontaneous and unplanned teaching strategies were revealed as the educators' main approach of supporting children's resilience. There was also some uncertainty about how to identify resilience according to educators in the study. The study's findings raise critical implications and questions for the early childhood sector, one of these being: Is the fostering and supporting of children's resilience too important an educational issue to be left to the fate of spontaneous incidents to arise in practice?
Short-Term Resilience Processes in the Family
The authors review naturalistic studies of short-term processes that appear to promote resilience in children in the context of everyday family life and argue that warm and supportive family interactions foster resilience through their cumulative impact on children's emotional and physiological stress response systems. In the short-term, these family interactions promote the experience and expression of positive emotion and healthy patterns of diurnal cortisol. Over time, these internal resources - a propensity to experience positive emotion and a well-functioning hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis system - enhance a child's capacity to avoid, or limit, the deleterious effects of adversity. This article highlights naturalistic research methods that are well suited to the study of these short-term resilience processes and points to clinical applications of our conceptual and methodological approach.
The relations of ego-resiliency and emotion socialization to the development of empathy and prosocial behavior across early childhood.
The present study explored early personality and environmental predictors of the development of young children’s empathy, as well as relations of empathy to prosocial behavior with peers at a later age. How children manage their own emotions and behaviors when under stress—their ego-resiliency—would be expected to affect their responses to others’ emotions. Also, socialization experiences, such as the quality of parenting behaviors, have been associated with individual differences in empathy-related responding. We examined whether mothers’ emotion socialization practices and children’s ego-resiliency at 18 months predicted initial levels and change in empathy across five time points (24, 30, 42, 48, and 54 months; N = 242), and whether empathy in turn predicted prosocial behavior with peers at 72/84 months of age. Ego-resiliency and mothers’ expressive encouragement both uniquely predicted the intercept of empathy. Boys’ empathy was lower than girls’ but improved more with age. Initial levels and growth of empathy positively predicted later prosocial behavior. Children’s ego-resiliency predicted the slope of empathy at near significance (p = .054). We also found that the intercept of empathy mediated the relation between ego-resiliency and prosocial behavior as well as the relation between mothers’ expressive encouragement and prosocial behavior. These findings suggest that both parenting and personality characteristics are relevant to the development of empathy during early childhood and might contribute to children’s later prosocial behavior with peers.
"I keep me safe.": Risk and resilience in children with messy lives.
The article discusses strategies for teaching at-risk students ways of coping with risk and encouraging resilience. The author looks at his experiences working with a disruptive student in order to understand how resilience at home was impacting the student's resilience in school. Topics include the impact of psychic trauma on students' capacity to cope with adversity, as well as at-risk students' concern for safety at home and school.

A Short Introduction to Promoting Resilience in Children by Colby Pearce
Publication Date: 2011
A child's capacity to cope with adversity and 'stand on their own two feet' is seen as critical to their development, well-being, and future independence and success in adulthood. Psychological strength, or resilience, directly affects a child's capacity to cope with adversity. This book provides a succinct, accessible and clear guide on how to promote resilience in children and achieve positive developmental outcomes for them. The author covers three key factors that affect resiliency: vulnerability to stress and anxiety, attachment relationships, and access to basic needs. For each, the author presents practical advice and strategies, such as how to regulate children's stress and anxiety, how to encourage and maintain secure attachments, and how to assure children that their needs are understood and will be met. The model presented will help parents and carers ensure their children grow up happy, healthy and resilient. This book will be invaluable for parents, carers and practitioners in supportive roles caring for children.
Raising Our Children to Be Resilient: A Guide to Helping Children Cope with Trauma in Today's World by Linda Goldman
Publication Date: 2005
In this timely and much-needed book, Linda Goldman addresses the many frightening events that impact our children by providing the reader with a seamless mixture of theory and practice garnered from her extensive experience in the field. Raising Our Children to Be Resilientincludes trauma resolution techniques and case studies, discussions of the respective roles played by parents, teachers and the larger community as well as additional resources for those in a position to help children who have been traumatized. The goal of Raising Our Children to Be Resilientis exactly what its title promises: to help children through their pain and confusion and guide them into a flexible and compassionate adulthood.
The Early Years: Assessing and Promoting Resilience in Vulnerable Children 1 by Brigid Daniel; Sally Wassell; Iain Campbell (Illustrator)
Publication Date: 2002
This clear and practical workbook shows the importance of encouraging resilience in pre-school children who live in challenging circumstances. Focusing on assessment of need, Brigid Daniel and Sally Wassell show how to evaluate resilience using checklists and background information. They explain that children in their early years gain resilience from a range of experiences, including attachment relationships, opportunities to develop self-esteem and learning to understand others and behaving in a positive way towards them. With this in mind, they set out ways of encouraging pro-social behaviour in young children: involving them in the process of evaluation, giving support to the parent or carer of the child, and using activities to nurture the child's `theory of mind'. Including guidance on ongoing monitoring and supported by case studies from practice, this book is an essential guide to nurturing resilience for all those who work with young children and their families. The workbook stands alone but also forms part of a set along with two other resilience resources on The School Years and Adolescence. The complete set can be bought together at a reduced price.
Raising Resilient Children: Fostering Strength, Hope, and Optimism in Your Child by Robert Brooks; Sam Goldstein
Publication Date: 2001
Resilience is what all parents want for their children because it embraces the ability of the child to deal more effectively with stress and pressure, to cope with everyday challenges, to bounce back from disappointments, adversity, and trauma, to develop clear and realistic goals, to solve problems, to relate comfortably with others, and to treat oneself and others with respect. This book integrates the latest research with the authors' clinical experience to show parents how to 1) identify and eliminate unintentionally negative parenting behaviors that undermine resilience and 2) substitute positive parenting behaviors that foster resilience. This book will define ten specific guideposts that the authors feel are key to fostering resilience.
Game Time: Games to Promote Social and Emotional Resilience for Children Aged 4 - 14 by Robyn Hromek
Publication Date: 2005
These games will be invaluable for those working with small groups of young people who find it difficult to behave and co-operate with their peers. They are progressive in terms of skill development and complexity and have a strong focus on early intervention (age range from 4 to 14). The games may be used sequentially over 6 to 8 sessions to practise a range of social and emotional skills; or in a one-off session to cover specific skills. Socio-emotional development addressed includes: - social and friendship skills - anger management - coping with teasing - coping in the playground - paying compliments.
Childhood Trauma and Resilience: A Practical Guide by Heather C. Forkey; Jessica L. Griffin; Moira Szilagyi
Publication Date: 2021
Trauma-informed care is emerging as a critical component of pediatric best practices. With this new practical guide, pediatricians and other child health professionals will learn to identify, evaluate, and treat children and families affected by trauma and adversity when they present at the office. In addition to instruction for acute, hands-on care, the cohesive approach offered in this guide also lays out a framework and concrete steps to transform practices into ones that are trauma-sensitive and can provide the best, most impactful care to all patients. Childhood Trauma and Resilience: A Practical Guide includes mnemonics, charts, tables, and numerous case studies to reinforce learning, as well as timely information on physician burnout and secondary traumatic stress. More than 20 reproducible handouts on topics such as attachment, cultural connections, and promoting resilience, will help pediatricians engage with parents on these important related topics and focus on the family factors that can help prevent and mitigate the effects of trauma.

Resource factors for mental health resilience in early childhood: An analysis with multiple methodologies
Background
Given that relatively little is known about the development of resilience in early childhood, this longitudinal study aimed to identify preschool resource factors associated with young children's mental health resilience to family adversity.
Conclusions
Findings suggest that early intervention and prevention strategies that focus on fostering child-adult relationship quality, self-concept, and self-control in young children may help build children's mental health and their resilience to family adversities.
Does Resilience Mediate the Association of Adverse Early Childhood Experiences With Emotional and Behavioural Problems?
Objectives: To explore the role of resilience as a mediator in the association between adverse childhood experiences (ACE) and emotional and behavioural problems (EBP) among adolescents.

Should Parents' Physical Punishment of Children Be Considered a Source of Toxic Stress That Affects Brain Development?
The notion that negative childhood experiences can be sources of toxic stress that have short- and long-term consequences for children's health and well-being has gained increasing attention in recent years. The family environment can be a key source of stress, particularly when parents inflict pain on children; when that pain rises to the level of physical abuse the stress is thought to be toxic. In this article the author considers the possibility that nonabusive physical punishment may also constitute a source of toxic stress in the lives of children that affects their brain structure and functioning. The research linking physical abuse and physical punishment to children's brain structure and functioning is summarized, and the article concludes with a discussion of implications for future research, policy, and practice.
Innovating in Early Head Start: Can Reducing Toxic Stress Improve Outcomes for Young Children?
How can families in the most difficult circumstances be supported to give children the best chance to succeed? Federal administrators of the Early Head Start program for young children and families think addressing the sources of toxic stress may be the answer. Recognizing the potential benefits to society—and potential improvements in outcomes for the families they serve—the U.S. Administration for Children and Families (ACF) has launched a trailblazing research effort to find more effective ways to enhance child development in the nation’s poorest families.
Pushing Toward Breakthroughs: Using Innovative Practice to Address Toxic Stress
Using the expanding scientific evidence about the long-term, damaging effects of toxic stress, a small but growing group of forward-thinking social service practitioners are trying innovative approaches that target its root causes and could lead to breakthroughs in the effectiveness of interventions—for both children and their caregivers.
“Do You Wanna Breathe or Eat?”: Parent Perspectives on Child Health Consequences of Food Insecurity, Trade-Offs, and Toxic Stress
Objectives This study among 51 parents of young children under age four investigated how parents that report marginal, low and very low food security characterize how trade-offs associated with food insecurity affect parents' mental health and child well-being. Methods We carried out 51 semi-structured audio-recorded interviews after participants responded to a survey regarding food security status and maternal depressive symptoms. Each interview was transcribed. Through a content analysis, we coded "meaning units" in each manuscript and organized them by themes in ATLAS.ti. Among participants reporting both food insecurity and depressive symptoms, we identified three primary areas of concern: trade-offs, mental health, and child well-being. Results Parents described how trade-offs associated with food insecurity have a profound relationship with their mental health and home environment that strongly affects young children. Descriptions of hardships include anxiety and depression related to overdue bills and shut-off notices, strains with housing costs, and safety. Parents described how their own frustration, anxiety, and depression related to economic hardship have a negative impact on their children's physical health, and their social and emotional development. Conclusions Parents in food insecure households recognize that trade-offs between food and other basic necessities are associated with their personal stress and poor mental health that, in turn, affects their children's health and development. Partnerships between healthcare providers, policymakers, and parents are essential to successfully address and prevent the poor child health outcomes of toxic stress associated with food insecurity and poverty.
Toxic Stress: Effects, Prevention and Treatment
Children who experience early life toxic stress are at risk of long-term adverse health effects that may not manifest until adulthood. This article briefly summarizes the findings in recent studies on toxic stress and childhood adversity following the publication of the American Academy of Pediatrics (AAP) Policy Report on the effects of toxic stress. A review of toxic stress and its effects is described, including factors of vulnerability, resilience, and the relaxation response. An integrative approach to the prevention and treatment of toxic stress necessitates individual, community and national focus.
Preventing Childhood Toxic Stress: Partnering With Families and Communities to Promote Relational Health
By focusing on the safe, stable, and nurturing relationships (SSNRs) that buffer adversity and build resilience, pediatric care is on the cusp of a paradigm shift that could reprioritize clinical activities, rewrite research agendas, and realign our collective advocacy. Driving this transformation are advances in developmental sciences as they inform a deeper understanding of how early life experiences, both nurturing and adverse, are biologically embedded and influence outcomes in health, education, and economic stability across the life span. This revised policy statement on childhood toxic stress acknowledges a spectrum of potential adversities and reaffirms the benefits of an ecobiodevelopmental model for understanding the childhood origins of adult-manifested disease and wellness. It also endorses a paradigm shift toward relational health because SSNRs not only buffer childhood adversity when it occurs but also promote the capacities needed to be resilient in the future. To translate this relational health framework into clinical practice, generative research, and public policy, the entire pediatric community needs to adopt a public health approach that builds relational health by partnering with families and communities. This public health approach to relational health needs to be integrated both vertically (by including primary, secondary, and tertiary preventions) and horizontally (by including public service sectors beyond health care). The American Academy of Pediatrics asserts that SSNRs are biological necessities for all children because they mitigate childhood toxic stress responses and proactively build resilience by fostering the adaptive skills needed to cope with future adversity in a healthy manner.
Early Childhood Adversity, Toxic Stress, and the Role of the Pediatrician: Translating Developmental Science Into Lifelong Health
Advances in a wide range of biological, behavioral, and social sciences are expanding our understanding of how early environmental influences (the ecology) and genetic predispositions (the biologic program) affect learning capacities, adaptive behaviors, lifelong physical and mental health, and adult productivity. A supporting technical report from the American Academy of Pediatrics (AAP) presents an integrated ecobiodevelopmental framework to assist in translating these dramatic advances in developmental science into improved health across the life span. Pediatricians are now armed with new information about the adverse effects of toxic stress on brain development, as well as a deeper understanding of the early life origins of many adult diseases. As trusted authorities in child health and development, pediatric providers must now complement the early identification of developmental concerns with a greater focus on those interventions and community investments that reduce external threats to healthy brain growth. To this end, AAP endorses a developing leadership role for the entire pediatric community—one that mobilizes the scientific expertise of both basic and clinical researchers, the family-centered care of the pediatric medical home, and the public influence of AAP and its state chapters—to catalyze fundamental change in early childhood policy and services. AAP is committed to leveraging science to inform the development of innovative strategies to reduce the precipitants of toxic stress in young children and to mitigate their negative effects on the course of development and health across the life span.
The Lifelong Effects of Early Childhood Adversity and Toxic Stress
Advances in fields of inquiry as diverse as neuroscience, molecular biology, genomics, developmental psychology, epidemiology, sociology, and economics are catalyzing an important paradigm shift in our understanding of health and disease across the lifespan. This converging, multidisciplinary science of human development has profound implications for our ability to enhance the life prospects of children and to strengthen the social and economic fabric of society. Drawing on these multiple streams of investigation, this report presents an ecobiodevelopmental framework that illustrates how early experiences and environmental influences can leave a lasting signature on the genetic predispositions that affect emerging brain architecture and long-term health. The report also examines extensive evidence of the disruptive impacts of toxic stress, offering intriguing insights into causal mechanisms that link early adversity to later impairments in learning, behavior, and both physical and mental well-being. The implications of this framework for the practice of medicine, in general, and pediatrics, specifically, are potentially transformational. They suggest that many adult diseases should be viewed as developmental disorders that begin early in life and that persistent health disparities associated with poverty, discrimination, or maltreatment could be reduced by the alleviation of toxic stress in childhood. An ecobiodevelopmental framework also underscores the need for new thinking about the focus and boundaries of pediatric practice. It calls for pediatricians to serve as both front-line guardians of healthy child development and strategically positioned, community leaders to inform new science-based strategies that build strong foundations for educational achievement, economic productivity, responsible citizenship, and lifelong health.
DOMESTIC VIOLENCE, CHILDREN, AND TOXIC STRESS
The article focuses on the impact of domestic violence on children, resulting from witnessing domestic violence in a home and mention urgent need of interference by a state on the same. Topics discussed include effects of domestic violence on children such as social, physical, and behavioral consequences; role of toxic stress in bringing change to social and behavioral system of the children; and lifelong consequences of childhood trauma and adversity.
An Analysis of Bronfenbrenner's Bio-Ecological Perspective for Early Childhood Educators: Implications for Working with Families Experiencing Stress
Today's families face many stressors during the early childhood years. Particular stressors like homelessness, violence, and chemical dependence, play havoc with the family system. Urie Bronfenbrenner's bio-ecological perspective offers an insightful lens for understanding and supporting families under stress. This article presents the key elements of Bronfenbrenner's perspective and applies this perspective to strategies for effectively helping families under stress. Reprinted by permission of the publisher.

Child Development and Child Poverty by Anselm Fiedler (Editor); Isidor Kuester (Editor)
Publication Date: 2010

Toxic Stress in Children and Adolescents
Key points
• Early life adversity, also referred to as adverse childhood experiences (ACEs), includes stressful or traumatic experiences in childhood and abuse, neglect, and household dysfunction.
• ACEs put children at risk of negative physical, mental, and behavioral health outcomes.
• When a child is exposed to stressors, such as early life adversity, the body’s natural stress response can become maladaptive or toxic to the body.
• The toxic stress response results from a disruption of the circuitry between neuroendocrine and immune systems, and it affects multiple biological systems, laying the foundation for long-term health outcomes.
Associations Between Maternal Caregiving and Child Indicators of Toxic Stress Among Multiethnic, Urban Families
Introduction
Our purpose was to examine associations between maternal caregiving and child indicators of toxic stress among multiethnic, urban families with children of early school age.
Discussion
PRF and supportive parenting behaviors may protect against toxic stress among vulnerable families, but additional research is needed to better understand these relationships. Resources are available to help clinicians screen for family risk factors and model responsive caregiving in pediatric settings.
Decision-making in foster care: A child-centered approach to reducing toxic stress in foster children
In the complex decisions involved in foster care, the needs of adult caregivers and the needs of children may sometimes reflect competing priorities. Foster children can be negatively impacted by adult-centered decisions that cause trauma beyond that which led to their entrance into the system. Though dictated by laws and policies meant to increase a child's well-being, foster care decisions often prioritize adult-centered concerns over a child's attachment needs. Utilizing case examples, this discussion paper examines foster care decisions that disrupt important child-caregiver relationships. Considerations for child-centered decision-making may help to reduce emotional trauma in foster children. •Examines foster care decisions that influence child-caregiver relationships.•Advocates a child-centered approach to reduce toxic stress in foster children•Case studies describe differences between child- and adult-centered decisions. •Proposes considerations to mitigate the effects of toxic stress
Treating Toxic Stress in Immigrant Children
CHAPTER 8: THE EXPERIENCES AND EFFECTSOF TOXIC STRESS ON YOUNGAFRICAN AMERICAN CHILDREN In African American Children in Early Childhood Education : Making the Case for Policy Investments in Families, Schools, and Communities
Children experience toxic stress if there is pronounced activation of their stress-response systems, in situations in which they do not have stable caregiving. Due to their exposure to multiple poverty-related risks, African American children may be more susceptible to exposure to toxic stress. Toxic stress affects young children’s brain and neurophysiologic functioning, which leads to a wide range of deleterious health, develop-mental, and mental health outcomes. Given the benefits of early care and education (ECE) for African American young children, ECE may represent a compensating experience for this group of children, and promote their positive development.

TIME TESTED EARLY CHILDHOOD THEORIES AND PRACTICES.
The following article reflects on past theories and practices that still influence early childhood development and education today. The critical thoughts on how young children should be raised and educated by individuals such as John Locke, Jean Jacques Rousseau, Johann Pestalozzi, William Froebel, John Dewey and Maria Montessori and others are shared and discussed. Specific attention is given to their theories and practices relating to the following: the nature of children, how children come to learn, school curriculum, and instructional materials. The article concludes with an epilogue of influences which summarizes major influences of the past that still have relevance to programs for young children today. Some influences cited include: significance of proper care for the unborn, importance of exploration and play, involvement in self-directed activity, the family role in the education of the child, direct instruction should be second to real life experiences, and instructional materials should be designed with purpose.

Child Development: Thinking About Theories by Phillip T. Slee; Rosalyn H. Shute; Phillip Slee; Rosalyn Shute
Publication Date: 2003
Many areas of developmental psychology have witnessed much important research in recent years, challenging old assumptions and bringing new findings and perspectives to light. The Texts in Developmental Psychology series has been designed to embrace the emergence of new areas and developments in the field from a global perspective, providing state-of-the-art, higher level introductions to major topic areas. Each volume is written by specialists who combine empirical data and a synthesis of recent research to deliver cutting-edge science in a format accessible to students and researchers alike. Child Development: Thinking About Theories is one of the few texts to critically examine both modern and postmodern contributions to theoretical development in child and adolescent psychology. The text has been written specifically taking into account the findings from a focus group of Honours psychology students to include pedagogical features such as an overview of theories linking the various schools of thought, ideas for further study and links to selected websites; as well as the latest developments in theoretical thinking including evolutionary theory, feminism and indigenous theory, and implications of theory for practice. Drawing from a worldwide background of research, the text is unique in that it contains many examples from Australia and other Pacific nations. This clear and concisely written text by two university lecturers in the field of child and adolescent psychology will prove a valuable resource for advanced undergraduate/Honours students of psychology and other closely related disciplines.

Theory and theory-driven practices of activity based intervention
Activity Based Intervention (ABI) is an approach used in many early childhood programs serving the special needs of young children and their families. The purpose of this article is to present theoretical underpinnings of ABI, and discusses theory-based ABI practices. ABI draws upon multiple and varied theories which in turn inform practice. At present, there is not a universal theory that can explain the complexities of how young children develop and learn. This article presents a theoretical model for ABI programs, and then describes theory-driven ABI practices, which include quality professional development opportunities, links to an effective measurement system, and a strong family focused component.

How Children Learn: from Montessori to Vygotsky - educational theories and approaches made easy by Linda Pound
Publication Date: 2005
An unrivalled introduction to the pioneers of educational theory that you won't be able to get through your studies without. This must-have book includes profiles on Vygotsky, Steiner, Montessori and Froebel, as well as 24 other theorists.
Parallel Paths to Constructivism: Jean Piaget and Lev Vygotsky by Susan Pass
Publication Date: 2004
No two people were more responsible for the current way lessons are taught worldwide than Jean Piaget and Lev Vygotsky. Both men had an important impact worldwide on how a person should be taught--starting in the last century and continuing today. Jean Piaget's Genetic Epistemology concentrated on the individual in learning. Lev Vygotsky's Cultural–Historical Theory concentrated on the social in learning. All over the world, teachers today use each man's ideas. Some use them at different times in their classrooms and others have learned to use them combined into the same lesson--bringing us to the crux of this book; namely, there are many lessons to learn by discovering the dynamics in the lives of both men. While both were from very different countries, there are many similarities in their lives. While most professors teaching introductory educational psychology courses focus on the difference in their lesson strategies, there are some remarkable similarities between their respective pedagogies. While differences in their families and countries were obviously significant, the two men differed surprisingly little in their pedagogical views and their basic ideas. Their similarities in views and ideas are due to the similarities in their lives. Chapter 1 looks at those similarities by looking at influences in their childhood. Chapter 2 observes their adolescence. Chapter 3 concentrates on young adulthood. Chapter 4 covers their postgraduate work. Chapter 5 traces the origins of their major ideas. For Jean Piaget, we look at the origin of chronological stages of development, the role of language, the role of the teacher, optimal mismatch, equilibration, error, and play. For Lev Vygotsky, we look at the origin of zone of proximal development, internalization, stage of development,'the social other,'role of language, error, sociohistorical context of learning, scaffolding and play. Chapter 6 deals with how Jean Piaget and Lev Vygotsky were able to overcome adversity and the lessons that can be learned by such overcoming. Chapter 7 provides a new pedagogy based on the communications that Jean Piaget and Lev Vygotsky had with each other, noting the influence such communications had on their mutual ideas.

Child Development Theorists: Freud to Erikson to Spock…and Beyond (Streaming Video)
Using historical footage and photos in combination with video shot at day care centers, this program offers an entertaining and enlightening introduction to the major child development theorists, how their theories differ, and how the application of multiple theories can be beneficial to parents, caregivers, and educators. Theorists presented include Sigmund Freud, Maria Montessori, Arnold Gesell, Lev Vygotsky, Jean Piaget, Rudolf Dreikurs, Erik Erikson, Abraham Maslow, John Bowlby, B. F. Skinner, Benjamin Spock, Lawrence Kohlberg, T. Berry Brazelton, Diana Baumrind, and Howard Gardner. 22 minutes - can watch individual segments of each theorist
Teaching the Immigrant Child: Application of Child Development Theories
Immigrant children are an under-researched yet a steadily growing group. It is therefore compelling for practitioners to understand challenges these children are likely to encounter in the classroom so as to effectively meet their needs. In this article various theoretical perspectives of prominent child development theories are analyzed in an attempt to understand immigrant children in the classroom. Theories of Maslow, Freud, Erikson, Piaget, Vygotsky, and Bronfenbrenner are explicitly discussed. Some suggestions for practice are also provided.
Piaget's Developmental Theory An Overview (Streaming Video)
The work of Jean Piaget has become the foundation of developmental psychology and the basis for changes in educational practice. In this program, David Elkind - author of The Hurried Child and Miseducation and a student of Piaget - explores the roots of Piaget's work and outlines important vocabulary and concepts that structure much of the study of child development. Using both archival film of Dr. Piaget and newer sequences of Dr. Elkind conducting interviews with children of varied ages, the video can serve equally as an introduction or a review of Piaget's developmental theory, its scope, and its content. 27:21
Relevance of Piaget′s cognitive principles among 4-7 years old children: A descriptive cross-sectional
Background: According to Jean Piaget, children between 4 and 7 years of age are under the intuitive sub-stage of preoperational stage. Children possess specific characteristics based on their age. These characteristic cognitive principles have not been assessed in a dental setting. Research on the cognitive development of the child and its application to dental health care can enable pediatric dentists to better understand, approach and deliver improved quality of care to children. Purpose: The purpose of this study is to assess the prevalence of Piaget′s cognitive principles among preoperational children. Materials and Methods: This cross-sectional study was conducted among 200 children, aged 4-7 years. Various characteristics, specific for this age group, such as egocentrism, concept of cardinal numbers based on centration, lack of conservation, and reversibility were assessed, using three tangible experiments and two interview questions. A comparison of the prevalence of each character was carried out among the children based on their age. Results: The prevalence of egocentrism based on the three mountain experiment was 65% and the personal interview showed a prevalence of 58%. Centration was appreciated in 83% of the study sample. The beaker experiment and the interview question revealed a lack of conservation in 89% and 59% of the children, respectively. There was a gradual and uniform reduction in the prevalence of the characters with an increase in age. Conclusion: All the three features assessed were observed in most of the children between 4 and 7 years of age as described by Piaget and most of his principles still appear valid today.
Children’s Early Helping in Action: Piagetian Developmental Theory and Early Prosocial Behavior
After a brief overview of recent research on early helping, outlining some central problems and issues, this paper examines children’s early helping through the lens of Piagetian moral and developmental theory, drawing on Piaget’s ‘Moral Judgment of the Child’ (1932/1997), ‘Play, Dreams, and Imitation in Childhood’ (1945/1951), and the ‘Grasp of Consciousness’ (1974). Piaget refers to a level of moral development in action that precedes heteronomous and autonomous moral reasoning. This action level allows children to begin to interact with people and objects. In his later work, Piaget explores the gradual construction of understanding from this activity level. Taken together, these elements of Piagetian theory provide a promising conceptual framework for understanding the development of early helping.
The Tension between Teacher Control and Children's Freedom in a Child-Centered Classroom: Resolving the Practical Dilemma through a Closer Look at the Related Theories
This article explores the meaning of child-centeredness in Early Childhood Education (ECE), by shedding light on the nuanced tensions between teacher control and children's freedom. While ECE professionals advocate the importance of children's individual interests and needs in education, they diverge somewhat in their perspectives about the teacher's role in education. This article manifests and tries to resolve this teaching dilemma through incorporating the related theories (Piaget, Vygotsky, Dewey, and Montessori) upholding and encompassing child-centeredness. The author contends that high teacher control and high children's freedom are not exclusive of one another: children's freedom is defined in an active way, as freedom to participate, rather than in a passive way, as freedom from any constrains. The paper concludes with a metaphor of "impressionist painting", which may offer some insights helpful to those who have struggled with the tension between teacher control and children's freedom in the context of progressive and critical pedagogy.
Vygotsky's Developmental Theory: An Introduction (Streaming Video)
The work of Lev Vygotsky is cited as the theory and practice of constructivist education. This program reconsiders the life, vocabulary, and concepts of Vygotsky, illustrating four basic concepts integral to his work: children construct knowledge, learning can lead development, development cannot be separated from its social context, and language plays a central role in cognitive development. Elena Bodrova brings an easy familiarity to these concepts, while Deborah Leong's commentary and lively classroom examples will enable students, teachers in training, and classroom teachers to incorporate these concepts into their understanding of child development. (27:55)
Vygotskian and post-Vygotskian views on children's play
The authors argue that childhood played a special role in the cultural-historical theory of human culture and biosocial development made famous by Soviet psychologist Lev S. Vygotsky and his circle. They discuss how this school of thought has, in turn, influenced contemporary play studies. Vygotsky used early childhood to test and refine his basic principles. He considered the make-believe play of preschoolers and kindergartners the means by which they overcame the impulsiveness of toddlers to develop the intentional behavior essential to higher mental functions. The authors explore the theory of play developed by Vygotsky's colleague Daniel Elkonin based on these basic principles, as well as the implications for play in the work of such Vygotskians as Alexei Leontiv, Alexander Luria, and others, and how their work has been extended by more recent research. The authors also discuss the role of play in creating the Vygotsky school's "zone of proximal development" Like these researchers, old and new, the authors point to the need to teach young children how to play, but they caution teachers to allow play to remain a childhood activity instead of making it a lesson plan.
Understanding Imaginative Thinking During Childhood: Sociocultural Conceptions of Creativity and Imaginative Thought.
Understanding imagination as both a cognitive and affective endeavor is crucial in order for educators to promote creative and imaginative thinking in informal and formal learning environments. It is the primary aim of this paper to develop the theoretical discussion of Vygotsky's writings on young children's imaginative abilities launched by Gajdamaschko ("Teach Educ" 16(1):13-22, 2005) and Lindqvist ("Res J" 15(2&3):245-251, 2003). This paper illustrates Vygotsky's writings on the cognitive processes involved in children's imagination and creativity and concludes with a discussion focused on the components of an educational environment that can either support or stifle children's imaginative abilities. It is through this continuing discussion that, as researchers, we hope to extend and challenge current conceptions of the role of imaginative thinking in early education.
I think I can: Preschoolers' private speech and motivation in playful versus non-playful contexts
Vygotskian theory and empirical evidence suggest that children's private speech and pretend play contribute to their development of motivational processes. Given current U.S. preschool expansion, and resurgent debates over the merits of play-based vs. non-play-based approaches to early childhood education, this study conducted an experimental investigation of the relative impact of these contexts on preschoolers' private speech and mastery motivation (performance and persistence). 38 preschool children engaged in a challenging fishing activity in two experimental conditions (playful and non-playful) simulating pedagogical and motivational (intrinsic vs. extrinsic) characteristics of common preschool settings. Private speech was categorized as cognitive, motivational, metacognitive, playful or partially internalized, and the emotional valence of private speech was marked as positive or negative. Results indicated that preschoolers in the playful condition displayed higher mastery motivation than preschoolers in the non-playful condition. Children in the playful condition used more frequent private speech, including more frequent cognitive, playful, and positively valenced private speech. Mastery motivation was positively correlated with playful, partially internalized, and positively valenced private speech, but negatively related to motivational private speech. Mastery motivation components (performance and persistence) related to different types of private speech. Performance related positively to metacognitive private speech and negatively to motivational private speech. Persistence related positively to playful private speech. The playful condition elicited private speech categories that were associated with higher motivation levels. Findings support the use of playful and play-based pedagogy in early childhood education, and teacher modeling of motivationally beneficial forms of private speech.
Montessori, Maslow, and Self-Actualization
The author discusses the similarity of the education principles of educator Maria Montessori to the self-actualization theory of psychologist Abraham Maslow. He states that Montessori and Maslow have placed importance to the psychological development of children. The author notes that Montessori has constantly reminded teachers to provide students with a prepared environment which can develop psychic health. He mentions that Maslow has considered the fulfillment of physiological and psychological needs to be crucial in the attainment of self actualization.
Children and Their Basic Needs
The purpose of this article is to present many of the obstacles presented by poverty in the fulfillment of the basic needs of children. Each of the 5 basic needs identified by Maslow are addressed with regard to children reared in poverty. The article concludes by reiterating the need to do more to ensure that the basic needs of all American children are met.
Gifted Children and Erikson's Theory of Psychosocial Development
After presenting an overview of Erik Erikson's theory of psychosocial development, the theory is applied to the development of gifted children. The psychosocial crisis experienced by children when they are infants, toddlers, preschoolers, elementary-aged, and during adolescence are examined, along with ways parents and teachers can help at each stage.
Exploring Erikson's psychosocial theory of development: generativity and its relationship to paternal identity, intimacy, and involvement in childcare.
The writers study the relationships among fathers' involvement in childcare, identity, intimacy, and generativity in order to understand which variables best predict variation in fathers' level of generativity. They find that fathers' paternal identity, psychosocial identity, and psychosocial intimacy are the best overall predictors of fathers' level of generativity, while fathers' paternal identity is the best predictor of fathers' generativity. Their findings support the assumption that development in previous psychosocial stages (identity and intimacy) are very important to later stages of psychosocial development ( generativity), but they point out that this assumption needs to be tested by longitudinal methods. They conclude that the finding that parental identity was a good predictor of generativity supports the proposition of person-role merger, in which one's investment in a role can influence development.
The first seven...and the eighth
Interviews educator Howard Gardner on his views about multiple intelligences (MI) theory. Definition of intelligence; Description of naturalist intelligence; Abilities which could fall under intelligences; Challenges of (MI) to intelligence quotient (IQ); Influence of multiple MI on Howard's teaching; Ways educators could implement theory of MI; Myths about MI. INSET: The intelligences, in Gardner's words..
Using the Multiple Intelligences to Enhance Instruction for Young Children and Young Children with Disabilities
The theory of the multiple intelligences are discussed in relation to working with young children and young children with disabilities. A rationale for the use of the multiple intelligences is discussed as well as practical suggestions on how they can be incorporated into early childhood programs.
An Intelligent Use For Belief.
The writer discusses the implications of Howard Gardner's Multiple Intelligences theory for the classroom. Highlighting the benefits of this theory for students, he proposes that practitioners, administrators, and parents consider this malleable definition of intelligence instead of a fixed one.
Determining multiple intelligences in the preschool aged child
Thesis
The Vision of Urie Bronfenbrenner: Adults Who Are Crazy About Kids
A profile of Urie Bronfenbrenner (1917–2005), the world-renowned child psychologist who was a pioneer in studying the behavior of children in their natural life space of family, school, peer group, and community, is provided. Bronfenbrenner tied all aspects of a child's world together to create a new field of study, the ecology of human development, that was based on the premise that trusting bonds with children are the most powerful force in positive youth development.
An Analysis of Bronfenbrenner's Bio-Ecological Perspective for Early Childhood Educators: Implications for Working with Families Experiencing Stress
Today's families face many stressors during the early childhood years. Particular stressors like homelessness, violence, and chemical dependence, play havoc with the family system. Urie Bronfenbrenner's bio-ecological perspective offers an insightful lens for understanding and supporting families under stress. This article presents the key elements of Bronfenbrenner's perspective and applies this perspective to strategies for effectively helping families under stress. Reprinted by permission of the publisher.
Examining contributions of child development theories to early childhood education
Theories of child development have traditionally provided a foundation for pedagogy in early childhood education and early intervention. This article proposes 10 questions for examining the influence of any child development theory on early education. The constructivist theory of Jean Piaget (1976) and the ecological systems theory of Urie Bronfenbrenner (1989) are used as examples of how these questions might be useful. The article concludes by questioning the usefulness of child development theories (in general) to early childhood education in a postmodern society.
Studying Environmental Influence on Motor Development in Children
There is a good argument that in order to truly understand the influences that shape child motor development, one must consider environmental influences that reflect the multilevel ecological contexts that interact with the changing biological characteristics of the child. Although there are theories typically associated with motor development that mention environmental influence (e.g., constraints, affordances), none provide the comprehensive framework comparable to the works of Bronfenbrenner (1979, 2005). With this paper, we address the need for environmental considerations, highlight Bronfenbrenner's work and application to the field of motor development, and provide examples for research using two contemporary themes.
Using an Ecological Framework for Understanding and Treating Externalizing Behavior in Early Childhood
This paper will review the literature on the rate, stability, and outcomes associated with externalizing behavior problems prior to kindergarten entry. Bronfenbrenner's (The ecology of human development. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press) ecological framework will be used to present the factors related to the onset and persistence of externalizing behavior problems in young children. Behavior problems prior to school entry are somewhat developmentally appropriate and most can be resolved within the classroom or child care setting. Intervention for children with moderate to severe behavior problems in early childhood is crucial because behavior problems are likely to persist into elementary school leading to a variety of social and academic concerns. Steps will be presented to help teachers determine whether or not a referral to a specialist is needed and locate an appropriate specialist.
John Dewey, From Philosophy of Pragmatism to Progressive Education
The reason for this publication has been our interest in educational issues on the one hand, and, on the other, in the philosophy of education of J. Dewey. This resulted in further approaching the philosophy of Pragmatism and considering its influence on J. Dewey’s philosophy of education. At the same time, we have sought the influences on his work from Aristotelian thought. In this direction, we show that the American philosopher considered the philosophy of pragmatism as applicable to a democratic education, which is also considered to be moral education.
Inquiry: a core concept of John Dewey's philosophy
John Dewey was a firm believer in the concept of inquiry. For him, inquiry facilitates growth and enriches the meanings of human experience. In his book 'How We Think,' he emphasized the significance of inquiry in young children's education. Another book 'Logic: The Theory of Inquiry' dwelt on the technical aspects of inquiry. Lastly, Dewey considered intelligence as the most general and consistent practice of the method of inquiry.
Foundations for learner-centered education: a knowledge base
Learner-centered education has a long history of development. Two of the first educators to put emphasis on the learner were Confucius and Socrates (5th to 4th centuries B.C.). Over two millennia passed before seventeenth century Englishman John Locke introduced experiential education (the idea that one learns through experience). Another two hundred years passed before European educators Pestalozzi, Hegel, Herbart, and Froebel designed and popularized experience-based, learner-centered curricula.
A century later, nineteenth century educator Colonel Francis Parker brought this method to America. Twentieth century Russian sociologist Lev Vygotsky, Swiss psychologist Jean Piaget, and American philosopher and educator John Dewey shaped the existing learner-centered education into a program called constructivism. This article traces this development and examines the major contributions of each of these educators.

Early Learning and School Readiness: Can Early Intervention Make a Difference?
Children's experiences prior to kindergarten entry are correlated with degree of cognitive development and school readiness as measured by standardized assessments of cognitive and linguistic performance. Children from economically poor and undereducated families are at elevated risk for lack of school readiness due to less knowledge and skill. This article reviews evidence from randomized controlled trials (RCTs) that were designed to test the hypothesis that preschool education, with an emphasis on seven particular classes of experiences, could be efficacious in improving readiness for school and subsequent academic achievement in reading and mathematics. Results indicate that the cumulative developmental toll that is measured reliably in high-risk samples of children beginning in the second year of life can be substantially reduced through a high-quality preschool program. This positive effect has been replicated in nine additional trials using RCT methodology. Additionally, long-term follow-up of the original study participants indicates not only improved performance in reading and mathematics in elementary and secondary school but also a reduction in special education placement and grade retention, among other practical benefits. Results are discussed with respect to public policy recommendations and suggestions for future research.
Quality Childcare Prepares At-Risk Children for Kindergarten
The positive impact of high-quality early childhood programs on school readiness has been documented. These results have been especially true for at-risk children. In the current research, children aged birth to 4 years were identified as being at risk and received scholarships for childcare in one of eight licensed high-quality centers. The children who used the scholarships-- the treatment group--were compared to those who did not use them or those who used them for only a short time--the control group. When children entered kindergarten, the Brigance Early Childhood Screen II K & 1 was used to evaluate their readiness. The method was a quasi-experimental, posttest only design. Children in the treatment group scored significantly higher on the Brigance than the children in the control group. The results reconfirm and support the early childhood literature demonstrating the positive impact of quality childcare, especially for at-risk children.
Late Talkers: A Population-Based Study of Risk Factors and School Readiness Consequences
Purpose: This study was designed to (a) identify sociodemographic, pregnancy and birth, family health, and parenting and child care risk factors for being a late talker at 24 months of age; (b) determine whether late talkers continue to have low vocabulary at 48 months; and (c) investigate whether being a late talker plays a unique role in children's school readiness at 60 months. Method: We analyzed data from the Early Childhood Longitudinal Study, a population-based sample of 9,600 children. Data were gathered when the children were 9, 24, 48, and 60 months old. Results: The risk of being a late talker at 24 months was significantly associated with being a boy, lower socioeconomic status, being a nonsingleton, older maternal age at birth, moderately low birth weight, lower quality parenting, receipt of day care for less than 10 hr/week, and attention problems. Being a late talker increased children's risk of having low vocabulary at 48 months and low school readiness at 60 months. Family socioeconomic status had the largest and most profound effect on children's school readiness. Conclusions: Limited vocabulary knowledge at 24 and 48 months is uniquely predictive of later school readiness. Young children with low vocabularies require additional supports prior to school entry.
A Review of the Research: Common Core State Standards for Improving Rural Children's School Readiness
Although a plethora of research focuses on economically at-risk preschool children in general across the United States, little can be found that investigates methods for improving rural children's academic outcomes. This review of research is intended to provide a contextual understanding of the background and current conditions that exist for rural preschool children and their families in America, and to recommend strategies for improving adverse cognition and learning conditions, including a lack of early literacy skills, and low high school completion rates that frequently are found in this population, utilizing the Common Core State Standards (CCSS) as a framework. Attention will be given to demographics, academic performance and scientifically-based practices proven to impact both teaching and learning for rural preschool children, particularly those from minority households, incorporating the newly developed CCSS. A comparison will be made between rural white and African American children's learning and cognition, highlighting significant disparities for African American students, despite the fact that they make up less than 10 % of all rural preschool children. For the scope of this study, rural communities will be defined as those with varying qualities situated outside of metropolitan areas. Results from this study reveal the conditions for rural preschool children, especially those from African American families with low-income levels. Findings indicate that providing training for teachers, administrators and families linked to rural schools; and infusing CCSS into the rural preschool curricula significantly improves school readiness, and decreases dropout rates.
Promising Findings on Preschoolers' Emergent Literacy and School Readiness In Arts-integrated Early Childhood Settings
An approach to early childhood education that integrates visual and performing arts throughout the preschool curriculum—Art as a Way of Learning—was implemented in a program (Promoting and Supporting Early Literacy through the Arts) designed to improve the emergent literacy and school readiness of at-risk young children in community-based preschool settings. A quasi-experimental pre-post treatment-only design was used to explore this program’s potential effects in a real-world setting. Preliminary results revealed improvements in young children’s emergent literacy on a number of targeted and standardized measures after participation in the program. This arts-integrated approach to the teaching of and learning in young children shows considerable promise and warrants a rigorous test of its effects.
Parental Influence, School Readiness and Early Academic Achievement of African American Boys.
The association between parental influence and the school readiness of African-American boys was explored. Data were gathered from the Early Childhood Longitudinal Study. Findings revealed that parents' influence, through their academic beliefs and behaviors, was linked to the cognitive performance of African-American boys during kindergarten. Findings suggested that there were differences in which academic beliefs and parenting behaviors were most effective in facilitating school readiness and scholastic achievement during the formative years. Stressing the importance of academic skills for African-American boys was linked to higher reading and mathematics achievement as well as previous enrollment in center-based child care. Parenting behaviors differed in their importance in predicting cognitive outcomes. Implications of the findings are considered.
School Readiness - NAEYC Position Statement

Learning from Head Start: A Teacher's Guide to School Readiness by Sidney W. Gilford (Editor)
Publication Date: 2013
Often referred to as a laboratory from which the general early childhood education community can learn, Head Start has benefited from more than 45 years of experience. Its unique blend of early childhood practices, assessments, and monitoring, along with a social service style approach, contribute to Head Start standing out as a premiere early childhood program. This book is designed to be a teaching tool for workshops and courses as well as an on-site resource for current and future Head Start teaching staff and others in early childhood education. By presenting background information, vignettes, research, and classroom activities, this book on school readiness combines best practices in early childhood education with relevant applications. Topics, written by experts in their fields, include: ]Approaches to learning and teaching strategies ]Assessments ]Behavior management ]Classroom set up ]Curriculum and lesson plans ]Early language, literacy, math, science, social studies, and creative arts ]Physical health and development (gross and fine motor skills) ]Social and emotional development ]Teaching young children with disabilities and dual language learners ]Tips for involving parents in their children's education

A brief parent-focused intervention to improve preschoolers’ conversational skills and school readiness.
Preschool children’s use of decontextualized language, or talk about abstract topics beyond the here-and-now, is predictive of their kindergarten readiness and is associated with the frequency of parents’ own use of decontextualized language. Does a brief, parent-focused intervention conveying the importance of decontextualized language cause parents to increase their use of these conversations, and as a result, their children’s? We examined this question by randomly assigning 36 parents of 4-year-old children into a decontextualized language training condition or a no-treatment control condition and used mixed effects modeling to measure change (from baseline) in parent and child decontextualized language at 4 subsequent home mealtimes during the following month (N = 174 interactions including the baseline). Compared with the control condition, training condition dyads significantly increased their decontextualized talk and maintained these gains for the month following implementation. Furthermore, trained dyads generalized the program content to increase their use of similarly decontextualized, yet untrained conversations. These results demonstrate that an abstract feature of the input is malleable, and introduces a simple, scalable, and replicable approach to increase a feature of child language known to be foundational for children’s school readiness.

School Readiness and the Characteristics of Effective Learning: The Essential Guide for Early Years Practitioners by Tamsin Grimmer
Publication Date: 2018
This guide to understanding school readiness in young children is essential reading for early years practitioners. It explores the concept of school readiness by unpicking what the term means for children and how we can define it in the context of the characteristics of effective learning. This includes ideas for promoting playing and exploring, active learning and creating and thinking critically. The book also considers how we can ensure schools are ready to receive children and suggests ways in which preschools and nurseries can work collaboratively with schools and engage parents and carers to ensure a smooth transition.

Children's screen use and school readiness at 4-6 years: prospective cohort study
Background
The primary aim of this study was to determine if screen use in early childhood is associated with overall vulnerability in school readiness at ages 4 to 6 years, as measured by the Early Development Instrument (EDI). Secondary aims were to: (1) determine if screen use was associated with individual EDI domains scores, and (2) examine the association between screen use and EDI domains scores among a subgroup of high screen users.
Conclusions
Screen use in early childhood is associated with increased vulnerability in developmental readiness for school, with increased risk for poorer language and cognitive development in kindergarten, especially among high users.
The role of father parenting in children’s school readiness: A longitudinal follow-up.
Mother autonomy support has been shown to predict child executive function (EF) and school readiness; however, little is known about the influence of father parenting on these child outcomes. The current study is a longitudinal follow-up examining the bidirectional relations between father parenting and child EF/school readiness across the preschool period. Eighty-nine father−child dyads participated at 2 time points (mean child ages of 38 and 58 months). The first time point was described in a previous article by Meuwissen and Carlson (2015). At the second time point, we observed fathers’ autonomy support in a dyadic puzzle task and quality of parenting during free play in an indoor playground. School readiness included a battery of EF, literacy, and math measures. We found that father autonomy support at Time 1 predicted child school readiness at Time 2, mediated by child language at Time 1. Additionally, child EF at Time 1 inversely predicted father overstimulation during play at Time 2, mediated by father control at Time 1 and child school readiness at Time 2. These results indicate that the relationship of father autonomy support to child EF is similar to what has been found with mothers and that physical play may be an important context for father influence on child outcomes.
School readiness of maltreated children: Associations of timing, type, and chronicity of maltreatment
Children who have been maltreated during early childhood may experience a difficult transition into fulltime schooling, due to maladaptive development of the skills and abilities that are important for positive school adaptation. An understanding of how different dimensions of maltreatment relate to children’s school readiness is important for informing appropriate supports for maltreated children. In this study, the Australian Early Development Census scores of 19,203 children were linked to information on child maltreatment allegations (substantiated and unsubstantiated), including the type of alleged maltreatment, the timing of the allegation (infancy-toddlerhood or preschool), and the total number of allegations (chronicity). Children with a maltreatment allegation had increased odds of poor school readiness in cognitive and non-cognitive domains. Substantiated maltreatment was associated with poor social and emotional development in children, regardless of maltreatment type, timing, or chronicity. For children with unsubstantiated maltreatment allegations, developmental outcomes according to the type of alleged maltreatment were more heterogeneous; however, these children were also at risk of poor school readiness irrespective of the timing and/or chronicity of the alleged maltreatment. The findings suggest that all children with maltreatment allegations are at risk for poor school readiness; hence, these children may need additional support to increase the chance of a successful school transition. Interventions should commence prior to the start of school to mitigate early developmental difficulties that children with a history of maltreatment allegations may be experiencing, with the aim of reducing the incidence of continuing difficulties in the first year of school and beyond.
Preschool teachers’ transition practices and parents’ perceptions as predictors of involvement and children’s school readiness
Highlights
• Parental perceptions are positively associated with home-based parental involvement.
• Home-based involvement was positively related to children’s academic achievement.
• Home-based involvement was negatively related to children’s problem behaviors.
• Home-based involvement was negatively related to children’s hyperactivity.

Fostering the Foundations of Self-Determination in Early Childhood: A Process for Enhancing Child Outcomes Across Home and School
Early childhood practitioners can play a vital role in the development of early self-determination in partnership with families. Self-determination has been generally considered to be about personal agency or control that can also relate to the quality of one's life. Young children with disabilities start to develop a range of critical skills such as engagement and self-regulation that will be needed throughout their lives. These are the early foundational skills that lead to later self-determination. This paper describes a simple four-step process and key features of foundations of self-determination in early childhood, a collaborative process focusing on home-school partnerships. The unique alliance between each dyad (i.e., family member and early childhood practitioner) support child outcomes across naturally occurring routines at home and school. Each family and practitioner dyad uses attainable short-term goals embedded in home and school routines, intentional adult cues, and environmental modifications to promote foundational skills of self-determination in young children with disabilities.
'One of the kids': Parent perceptions of the developmental advantages arising from inclusion in mainstream early childhood education services
THIS RESEARCH EXPLORED THE perspectives of parents who have enrolled their child with a developmental disability in a mainstream early childhood education service. It asked questions about their experience of engagement with the service, and the extent to which they felt participation in this service was beneficial for their child. Fifteen families whose children had been attending a mainstream service for at least six months were recruited to the study and participated in qualitative interviews. There were four key findings from this study: parents are primarily motivated to enrol their children in mainstream early childhood services because they seek social interactions for their children with typically developing peers; despite increasing support at the policy level for inclusive early childhood education, families encountered many challenges in securing a place for their child at a centre that was willing and able to meet their child's needs; parents felt that their child's development was supported by attendance at a mainstream centre, particularly in relation to communication and behaviour; and parents believed that positive developmental change in their child was the direct result of service quality and imitation through peer interaction.
'Embracing everybody': Approaching the inclusive early childhood education of a child labelled with autism from a social relational understanding of disability
THIS STUDY INVESTIGATED EDUCATORS' attitudes towards the inclusion of a child labelled with autism in a mainstream early childhood education and care (ECEC) setting in Australia. The article provides an overview of three perspectives from which disability in inclusive early childhood education can be approached: the medical model of disability, the social model of disability and the social relational understanding of disability. Findings showed that when educators' beliefs and practices aligned with a social relational understanding of disability, inclusion for a child labelled with autism was facilitated. It is argued that inclusion in early childhood settings can be fostered when educators recognise and dismantle barriers to doing and barriers to being, and view inclusion as ordinary practice.
High-Quality School-Based Pre-K Can Boost Early Learning for Children With Special Needs
This article assesses the effects of Tulsa, Oklahoma's school-based prekindergarten program on the school readiness of children with special needs using a regression discontinuity design. Participation in the pre-K program was associated with significant gains for children with special needs in early literacy scores, but not in math scores. These gains were not statistically different from those exhibited by their classmates without special needs. Findings are interpreted as indicating that high-quality state pre-K programs can serve as effective early intervention programs for children with special needs.
An Activity for Every Child
The article reports on early childhood special education and discusses activities for children with special needs such as planting seeds. It is opined that such activities grow children’s interest in the everyday world and foster language development and social skills as children explore scientific concepts. It is stated that teachers should creatively adapt science materials to reduce barriers for children with physical disabilities.
Montessori Instruction: A Model for Inclusion in Early Childhood Classrooms and Beyond
The article investigates the abilities of the Montessori educational system to support an inclusive classroom which integrates traditional and special needs students. The authors state that the Montessori method in particular lends itself to both special needs instruction and classroom integration. They site the core principles of teaching academic, life, and social skills as being particularly well suited to special needs students. Other topics discussed include peer support within curricula, individually determined pacing of information, and engagement of different learning styles within the classroom.
Including the Child With Special Needs: Learning From Reggio Emilia
Part of a special issue on the early childhood program in the Italian city of Reggio Emilia. Several key principles within the Reggio ideals can foster new beliefs and attitudes regarding inclusion in early childhood education. Reggio Emilia offers a powerful image of the child that nourishes the authentic practice of maximizing each child's capabilities, giving inclusion the potential to reduce fear and to build respect and understanding in school life and for the future. The essential components that support different thinking about inclusion are the Reggio Emilia image of the child and role of the teacher, the commitment to communication and collaboration with parents, and the power of projects.
Homeless and Disabled: Rights, Responsibilities, and Recommendations for Serving Young Children with Special Needs
Homelessness is a growing social problem in the United States. Especially vulnerable to this phenomenon are young children because homelessness is viewed as a breeding ground for disabilities. Despite federal legislation ensuring educational opportunities, the educational needs of children who are homeless are frequently unfulfilled. This article reviews the educational rights of children who are homeless, including those with disabilities, and offers recommendations and suggestions as to how early childhood programs can help meet the needs of homeless young children with disabilities and their families.
Including Young Children with Disabilities in Typical Early Childhood Settings
The article offers guidance on including young children with disabilities and special needs in typical early child care or preschool program. It identifies variety of child care providers and programs parents can choose from that must comply with the Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA), and the different categories of child care programs. It outlines questions families can ask child care providers and informs about the free, appropriate public education offered in school districts.

Caring for Young Children with Special Needs by Cindy Croft
Publication Date: 2017
This easy-to-use guide gives you a quick overview on many topics related to working with young children with special needs. Learn about inclusion in early childhood programs and disability law, as well as typical vs. atypical development. The quick guide also covers several specific disabilities/special needs and provides definitions, common characteristics, and practical strategies for adaptation. Cindy Croft is the director of the Center for Inclusive Child Care at Concordia University and on faculty for several university education programs. She has her MA in Education and has worked in the field of early childhood for over twenty years.

Impacts of the Boston prekindergarten program on the school readiness of young children with special needs
Theory and empirical work suggest inclusion preschool improves the school readiness of young children with special needs, but only 2 studies of the model have used rigorous designs that could identify causality. The present study examined the impacts of the Boston Public prekindergarten program—which combined proven language, literacy, and mathematics curricula with coaching—on the language, literacy, mathematics, executive function, and emotional skills of young children with special needs (N = 242). Children with special needs benefitted from the program in all examined domains. Effects were on par with or surpassed those of their typically developing peers. Results are discussed in the context of their relevance for policy, practice, and theory.
Values and Needs of Children With and Without Special Educational Needs in Early School Years: A Study of Young Children’s Views on What Matters to Them
Understanding how children experience life in educational settings should be an imperative for educational practitioners, evaluators, and researchers. Listening to children’s points of views would facilitate the development of educational settings that meet the needs of children and contribute to their wellbeing and development so that their experiences are both joyful and meaningful. A total of 56 children between the ages of 5 and 7 in 65 educational settings located in central Sweden were included in the study. Amongst the 56 participating children, 29 were identified as having special educational needs. The children’s views were collected from 2012 to 2015 using drawings and interviews, and these were analysed using a thematic analysis. Nine themes that reflected matters of importance for the children, both those with and without special educational needs, are described. These themes are discussed and linked to previous research, educational evaluation models, and theories of values and needs.
Inclusion and Preschoolers Who Are Typically Developing: The Lived Experience
In this qualitative study, we examined the lived experiences of three typically developing children participating in inclusive preschool programs for children with special needs. Inclusion has been considered a best practice in early childhood programs for many years; however, some may still argue that the benefits for children with disabilities are greater than for those without. Prior research has explored the benefits of inclusion for young children with special needs but has not focused as intentionally on the benefits for young children with typical abilities. In this study, we followed three preschool children with typical development for one school year. Employing an hermeneutical framework, we used observations, interviews with teachers and parents, and artifact reviews to examine how these three children made meaning of their experiences. Findings indicated that all three children made social gains and demonstrated improved perceptions of peer with disabilities after participating in their respective programs. The results suggest that inclusive preschool programs may be viewed as beneficial for all children.

Building Blocks for Teaching Preschoolers with Special Needs by Susan Rebecka Sandall
Publication Date: 2019
See what's new in the third edition Expanded with timely new content and consistent with DEC Recommended Practices, the third edition of this bestselling book will fully prepare a new generation of early childhood educators to teach and include every child. Like the groundbreaking previous editions, this updated Building Blocks guide gives pre‐ and inservice teachers three types of practical, evidence‐based inclusion strategies: curriculum modifications, embedded learning opportunities, and child‐focused instructional strategies. Educators will learn how to apply these three strategies for the benefit of all children; review the latest research that supports the Building Blocks model; and find ready‐to‐use tips and guidance on key topics, such as fostering friendships, encouraging independence, and promoting positive behavior. Reproducible forms help with planning and assessment, and seven comprehensive new training modules make it easy to teach the Building Blocks framework in college courses and professional development sessions. Equally useful as a student‐friendly textbook and a go‐to inclusion guide for practicing educators, this is a resource teachers will return to again and again for proven, easy‐to‐use strategies that support the success of every young learner. NEW GUIDANCE AND TIPS ON: Applying UDL principles to engage every student in your diverse classroomIntegrating literacy and STEAM into daily activities and routinesSupporting the executive function skills of all young learnersApplying new and expanded curriculum modificationsCollaborating successfully with other team members to ensure the best child outcomesConducting classroom quality assessment Includes 7 training modules Using the Building Blocks frameworkConducting ongoing child assessmentPlanning for the individual childUsing visuals to support learningApplying the Building Blocks framework to math and scienceApplying the framework to challenging classroom behaviorExtending the framework to infants and toddlers Each module includes a slide deck, presentation notes, learning activities, and a list of other resources and references.

Selecting Appropriate Assessment Instruments to Ensure Quality Transition Services
The transfer from an early intervention system to a program for a 3-year-old is a critical event that not only brings opportunities but also presents challenges to children and their families. In order to help families handle these transition related issues, professionals should collect authentic data about family concerns, needs, and expectations during transition so as to design developmentally and culturally appropriate transition goals and deliver family-centered services. The purpose of this study is twofold: to review and compare possible transition instruments with a focus on reliability and validity; and to describe how to involve families in transition assessment, planning, and intervention activities, thus ensuring a smooth, successful transition for young children.
Implementing formative mathematics assessments in Prekindergarten
Authentic assessment "refers to the systematic collection of information about the naturally occurring behaviors of young children and families in their daily routines" (Neisworth & Bagnato, 2004, p. 204). In formative assessments, the assessment information informs instruction. Formative assessments are given periodically and should be used to make ongoing curriculum and program changes for a child, or groups of children (Cook, Klein, & Tessier, 2008). Developmentally appropriate practices incorporate systematic planning for curriculum and assessment reflecting a child's progress (Copple & Bredekamp, 2009). Curriculum-based assessments are informal assessment procedures that monitor students' progress (Deno, 2003a). The mathematics assessments discussed in this article are considered informal for the following reasons: (1) the preschool teachers created the assessments in collaboration with the university professors; (2) the assessments are tied to the classroom curriculum and mathematics; and (3) the assessments were used for progress monitoring of mathematics skills. This article provides a process that teachers can follow easily to gain confidence in their abilities to create and conduct informal mathematics assessments based on their classroom curriculum.
Assessing metacognitive knowledge in 3-5 year olds: the development of a metacognitive knowledge interview (McKI)
Historically, early cognitive skills have been underestimated, largely as a result of the ways these competencies have been measured, which is particularly pervasive in the area of metacognition. Only recently have researchers begun to detect evidence of contextualized metacognition in 3-5 year old preschool children through the use of observational assessment tools (e.g., Whitebread et al. J Cogn Educ Psychol 3:433-455, 2007, Metacognition Learn 4:63-85, 2009). While these observational methods are a more sensitive way to capture metacognition in young children, their exclusive use may not result in a comprehensive depiction of early metacognitive competency. In the current study, we describe the development of a metacognitive knowledge interview (McKI) and what it reveals about metacognitive processes in 43 3-5 year olds (including investigating face validity). Findings indicate that the McKI (a) is a developmentally appropriate measure for 3-5 year olds, (b) is capable of eliciting articulated metacognitive knowledge when engaging in a contextualized problem-solving task, (c) shows the expected developmental trend (i.e., older children perform at a higher level and scores increased over the course of a school year), and (d) provides sufficient variation across children. Implications for future research are discussed, including the importance of using multiple measurement tools when studying early metacognitive development.
Concept Maps: An Alternative Methodology to Assess Young Children
The authors investigated the utility and efficacy of using concepts maps as a research tool to assess young children. Pre- and post- concept maps have been used as an assessment and evaluation tool with teachers and with older students, typically children who can read and write; this article summarises an investigation into the utility of using this methodology with children in pre-kindergarten and kindergarten. This exploratory study indicated that this methodology is cost-effective, efficient, and developmentally appropriate for use with young children.
The Portfolio and Its Use: Developmentally Appropriate Assessment of Young Children. ERIC Digest.
Educators use the term "authentic assessment" to refer to the practice of realistic student involvement in the evaluation of student achievement. Authentic assessments are performance-based and instructionally appropriate. One method of authentic assessment is the assembly and review of a portfolio of a student's work. The portfolio is a record of a child's process of learning, and includes work samples, records of observations, and screening tests. Ideally, a portfolio includes observations in the following forms: (1) anecdotal records, which are useful for recording spontaneous events; (2) checklists or inventories, which should be based on the development associated with the acquisition of skills; (3) rating scales, which are used to measure behavior that has several components; (4) children's responses to questions; and (5) screening tests, which identify children's skills. Besides containing a wide variety of work samples, portfolios used in early childhood education should contain a statement of purpose. Once the material in a portfolio is organized by chronological order and category, the teacher can evaluate the child's achievements. Portfolios are not meant for comparing children to each other, but for documenting individual children's progress over time. The use of portfolios also provides teachers with a built-in system for planning parent-teacher conferences.
Early Childhood Curriculum, Assessment, and Program Evaluation - NAEYC Position Statement
Assessment in Early Childhood Education
From Eager to Learn: Educating Our Preschoolers
EARLY CHILDHOOD ASSESSMENT: IMPLEMENTING EFFECTIVE PRACTICE
A research-based guide to inform assessment planning in the early grades
Powerful Portfolios for Young Children
Developing a Progress Monitoring Portfolio for Children in Early Childhood Special Education Programs
The article presents advice to early childhood special education teachers for developing a progress monitoring portfolio system. Introductory details are given discussing common uses and misuses of portfolios in student assessment. The process monitoring portfolio (PMP) model is defined and outlined, highlighting its utility for ongoing documentary assessment. Discussion is also given regarding the recognition and interpretation of indicators within the model.
Portfolios in first grade: four teachers learn to use alternative assessmen
A study examined four first-grade teachers' perceptions of portfolio assessment. The teachers found that the portfolios were useful for communicating with families and documenting students' progress; for motivating, encouraging, and instructing students in the skill of self-assessment; and for monitoring and improving teachers' classroom instruction.
Using Portfolio Assessments With Young Children Who Are at Risk for School Failure
Portfolio assessments provide visual and/or auditory documentation of a child's strengths and can be used to determine the school readiness of children at risk for developmental delays. The typical steps for completing a portfolio assessment, use of portfolio assessment to measure school readiness and monitor performance, and benefits of portfolio assessment for teachers, children, and families are outlined.
What should I put in my portfolio? Supporting young children's goals and evaluations
Portfolios are useful as evaluation tools for the progress of young students. Such collections of a student's earlier work give children the opportunity to review their own progress and also help parents and teachers assess educational success with concrete evidence of performance. However, since children do not define success the way adults do, proper evaluative activities must be established to assess student performance.

Preschool Assessment: Principles and Practices by Marla R. Brassard; Ann E. Boehm
Publication Date: 2007
Comprehensive and user friendly, this ideal professional reference and graduate text provides a developmentally informed framework for assessing 3- to 6-year-olds in accordance with current best practices and IDEA guidelines. The authors are leading clinician-researchers who take the reader step by step through selecting appropriate measures, integrating data from a variety of sources, and using the results to plan and evaluate effective interventions and learning experiences. Coverage encompasses screening and assessment of cognitive, linguistic, emotional, and behavioral difficulties, including mental retardation and autism. Case studies illustrate key facets of assessing diverse children and families; appendices offer concise reviews of over 100 instruments.

Chapter 3: Towards Developmentally Appropriate Assessment of Learning in a Young Learner Classroom in Integrating Assessment Into Early Language Learning and Teaching.
Chapter 4: Integrating Developmentally Appropriate Assessment with Instruction in the Young Learner Classroom In Integrating Assessment Into Early Language Learning and Teaching.
Development and validity of the Motivation Assessment Tool for Physical Education (MAT-PE) among young children
Highlights
• Developed the Motivation Assessment Tool for Physical Education (MAT-PE).
• Assesses basic psychological need satisfaction and behavioral regulation in PE.
• Mixed method assessment suitable for use with young children (5-6 years old).
• Initial findings demonstrate that the MAT-PE has promising validity.
• More research is required to further develop and improve the MAT-PE.

Want Success in School? Start with Babies!
The article takes a look at infancy and early childhood as the foundation of learning competency and success in school. It notes that the first two years of human life is a critical period for brain development that should be nurtured by positive experiences and environments. The article explains sensitive periods of early child development that require specific support Brain cell creation, Bonding, Supported exploration, and Self in Relation to others.
The Context of Child Care for Toddlers: The 'Experience Expectable Environment'
An experience expectable environment in child care classrooms is one in which teachers consistently provide positive and nurturing interactions within daily routines and activities to enhance children's learning. Growing numbers of children are being enrolled in child care at earlier ages and staying for longer periods of time each day which is heightening the need to attend to the context of child care for very young children. Several large scale studies in social policy, biology, and human development have confirmed the links between children's early experiences and later outcomes, and recent brain research and research in child care classrooms has highlighted the importance of these consistent, responsive, and respectful patterns of interaction, especially for very young children's development. Yet, examination of the quality of child care has indicated interactions in these classrooms that may not support optimal development and/or that could be considered harmful. Given toddlers' need for consistent and nurturing care, coupled with the current substandard quality of care for very young children, discussing the context of child care in terms of an experience expectable environment provides a perspective to understand the context of toddler child care. This perspective underscores the connections of routines and interactions to children's development of neural pathways, thus setting the foundation for optimizing learning and development.
Consequences of Parental Divorce for Child Development
In this article, I propose a three-stage estimation model to examine the effect of parental divorce on the development of children's cognitive skills and noncognitive traits. Using a framework that includes pre-, in-, and post-divorce time periods, I disentangle the complex factors affecting children of divorce. I use the Early Childhood Longitudinal Study-Kindergarten Class 1998 to 1999 (ECLS-K), a multiwave longitudinal dataset, to assess the three-stage model. To evaluate the parameters of interest more rigorously, I employ a stage-specific ordinary least squares (OLS) model, a counterfactual matching estimator, and a piece-wise growth curve model. Within some combinations of developmental domains and stages, in particular from the in-divorce stage onward, I find negative effects of divorce even after accounting for selection factors that influence children's skills and traits at or before the beginning of the dissolution process. These negative outcomes do not appear to intensify or abate in the ensuing study period.
Stress and child development
Children's early social experiences shape their developing neurological and biological systems for good or for ill, writes Ross Thompson, and the kinds of stressful experiences that are endemic to families living in poverty can alter children's neurobiology in ways that undermine their health, their social competence, and their ability to succeed in school and in life. For example, when children are born into a world where resources are scarce and violence is a constant possibility, neurobiological changes may make them wary and vigilant, and they are likely to have a hard time controlling their emotions, focusing on tasks, and forming healthy relationships. Unfortunately, these adaptive responses to chronic stress serve them poorly in situations, such as school and work, where they must concentrate and cooperate to do well. But thanks to the plasticity of the developing brain and other biological systems, the neurobiological response to chronic stress can be buffered and even reversed, Thompson writes, especially when we intervene early in children's lives. In particular, warm and nurturing relationships between children and adults can serve as a powerful bulwark against the neurobiological changes that accompany stress, and interventions that help build such relationships have shown particular promise. These programs have targeted biological parents, of course, but also foster parents, teachers and other caregivers, and more distant relatives, such as grandparents. For this reason, Thompson suggests that the concept of two-generation programs may need to be expanded, and that we should consider a "multigenerational" approach to helping children living in poverty cope and thrive in the face of chronic stress.
The importance of play in promoting healthy child development and maintaining strong parent-child bonds
Play is essential to development because it contributes to the cognitive, physical, social, and emotional well-being of children and youth. Play also offers an ideal opportunity for parents to engage fully with their children. Despite the benefits derived from play for both children and parents, time for free play has been markedly reduced for some children. This report addresses a variety of factors that have reduced play, including a hurried lifestyle, changes in family structure, and increased attention to academics and enrichment activities at the expense of recess or free child-centered play. This report offers guidelines on how pediatricians can advocate for children by helping families, school systems, and communities consider how best to ensure that play is protected as they seek the balance in children's lives to create the optimal developmental milieu.

Child Development from Birth to Eight: A Journey Through the Early Years by Maria Robinson
Publication Date: 2008
Understanding child development is crucial for all early years practitioners and a sound knowledge of children and their development underpins effective practice. The book presents a detailed and in-depth picture of early years development, particularly of developmental processes and interactions. Rather than focusing on a particular topic, it offers a broad overview from a range of sources including: Developmental, evolutionary and cognitive psychology Biology Sensory information Attachment theory Neuroscience Research linking brain function and emotions As well as providing a great insight into the aspects of child development and offering the benefits of a multi-disciplinary approach, the book emphasizes appropriate pedagogical approaches and the implications for adults who work with young children. Child Development from Birth to Eight is essential reading for all early years students and practitioners.
Child Development in Practice: Responsive Teaching and Learning From Birth to Five by Pamela May
Publication Date: 2011
How should children feel about themselves and their learning? How do I know what children have learnt and how can I move them on? How can I ensure that resources are available for children to use actively and independently? In today's busy setting an understanding of child development sometimes gets overlooked, yet it lies at the heart of effective practice. Child Development in Practiceprovides an approachable, user-friendly base from which to plan ways of working with children that are developmentally appropriate and will enable them to learn enjoyably and effectively. Drawing on recent research, the book thoughtfully discusses sound principles of child development alongside descriptions of every day practice. It then offers practical advice on how to fully utilise the key areas in an early years setting, including the creative area, books and stories and the outside, and shows how to plan and implement integrated topics where teaching is cross-curricular and holistic. Throughout, a series of key questions are presented to encourage practitioners to reflect on why they are teaching in certain ways and increase their understanding of children's developmental needs. Directly linking theory and practice, this book aims to give students and practitioners the knowledge and confidence they need to help children become active, interactive and independent learners.
From Neurons to Neighborhoods: The Science of Early Childhood Development. by Jack P. Shonkoff (Editor); Deborah A. Phillips (Editor); Integrating the Science of Early Childhood Development Staff; Board on Children, Youth and Families Staff; Institute of Medicine Staff; Division of Behavioral and Social Sciences and Education Staff
Publication Date: 2000
How we raise young children is one of today's most highly personalized and sharply politicized issues, in part because each of us can claim some level of "expertise." The debate has intensified as discoveries about our development-in the womb and in the first months and years-have reached the popular media. How can we use our burgeoning knowledge to assure the well-being of all young children, for their own sake as well as for the sake of our nation? Drawing from new findings, this book presents important conclusions about nature-versus-nurture, the impact of being born into a working family, the effect of politics on programs for children, the costs and benefits of intervention, and other issues. The committee issues a series of challenges to decision makers regarding the quality of child care, issues of racial and ethnic diversity, the integration of children's cognitive and emotional development, and more. Authoritative yet accessible, From Neurons to Neighborhoods presents the evidence about "brain wiring" and how kids learn to speak, think, and regulate their behavior. It examines the effect of the climate-family, child care, community-within which the child grows.
The Developing Child in the 21st Century: a global perspective on child development by Sandra Smidt
Publication Date: 2006
Taking a child-centred view of education and learning, this multidisciplinary exploration of childhood shows how children make sense of the world through everything they come into contact with, and all their interactions. The book takes a broad assessment of all children's roles and experiences, covering a diverse range of topics including: global and historical childhoods the child as meaning-maker and active learner learning in the context of family, culture, group, society representing and re-representing the world the development of symbolic representation the child and culture understanding roles, identity, race and gender making sense of science and technology brain functions and development. Sandra Smidtnbsp;depicts children as symbol users, role-players, investigators and creative thinkers, and follows children'snbsp;progress in forming their understanding of their environment, asking questions about it, and expressing it through music, dance, art and constructive play.
Celebrating 50 Years of Child Development Research: Past, Present, and Future Perspectives by Barbara Hanna Wasik; Samuel L. Odom
ISBN: 9781681252766
Publication Date: 2019
For more than fifty years, the Frank Porter Graham Child Development Institute has conducted groundbreaking research that revolutionized the field of early childhood care and education. Based on presentations made at FPG's 50th anniversary symposium, this essential reference looks back on the Institute (TM)s trailblazing history, analyzes contemporary issues in child development, and recommends critical new research directions. More than a dozen high-profile contributors thoroughly examine the three themes of the anniversary symposium: early care and education, diversity, and children with disabilities and their families. Readers will learn from in-depth chapters on: understanding the social, cultural, educational, and political forces that affect children (TM)s outcomes meeting the challenge of serving diverse populations as U.S. demographics shift preparing practitioners to work with young dual language learners improving connections between the knowledge base and professional practice strengthening the early childhood workforce through effective professional development analyzing decades of research and policy and examining ways to support continuous improvement A celebration of progress and a compelling call to action for the next generation of professionals, this important volume is a must for researchers, policy makers, and faculty. Whether used as a textbook or a reference, this book will help shape the future of the early childhood field--and improve outcomes for tomorrow's young children and families.